Homestead Congress

Historic Homestead Act Coming to Nebraska

2012-01-07T11:28:00.001-06:00

Four pages, 4 million claims and America was forever changed. The four pages which make up the Homestead Act of 1862 will be on display at Homestead National Monument from April 25 through May 28, 2012. When not on display this document is housed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

The Homestead Act of 1862 is considered one of the 100 most important documents in the National Archives which houses 10 billion paper records, 30 million photographs and close to 3

million maps and charts, all stored in more than 30 buildings around the country. "The Homestead Act was selected as one of 100 milestone documents as part of the Our Documents project because of its influence on the course of U.S. history. These documents helped shape the national character, and they reflect our diversity, our unity, and our commitment as a nation to continue our work toward forming a more perfect union” according to Lee Ann Potter of the Education Division of the National Archives.

“During the 150th commemoration we thought it was important to share the document which is at the heart of the story we share with every visitor to Homestead National Monument of America,” said Superintendent Mark Engler. Four million people filed for free land under the Homestead Act of 1862 and America gave away nearly 10 percent of its land mass from January 1, 1863 through 1976 in the lower 48 states and 1986 in Alaska. Today it is estimated that 92 million Americans are descendants of homesteaders.

Jason Jurgena, the curator at Homestead, has been preparing for the document's arrival since early in 2011. “It is a rare opportunity to see a document that had such an important impact on this country,” said Jurgena. “The National Archives is pleased to cooperate with the Homestead National Monument through its longstanding loan program. This program enables thousands who might not otherwise have the chance to see such an example of our national experience” said Jim Zeender, the Senior Registrar at the National Archives.

The historic document, signed by President Abraham Lincoln, will be on view at the Heritage Center. Like all other park programs and activities, viewing this one of a kind document will be free of charge. Homestead National Monument of America is a unit of the National Park Service located four miles west of Beatrice, Nebraska. Current hours of operation are 8:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. daily. Admission is free of charge. For additional information, please call 402-223-3514 or visit www.nps.gov/home

Three Factors and the Homestead Act

2011-12-02T09:00:00.004-06:00

I had no idea that one of the primary reasons the Homestead Act was initiated may have been slavery, even though I am a native of Nebraska, home state of the Homestead National Monument. How many of you thought the sole purpose of the Homestead Act was to move people to the West?

by Jamie Sumner

Southeast Community College

I wanted to understand why the Homestead Act was initiated and what made it so successful so I spoke to Blake Bell who is the Historian at Homestead National Monument, as well as, researching many books in our library here at SCC. I will explain to you how the Homestead Act came to be and how the combination of three factors made it successful. I will start with what was occurring before the Homestead Act, and then tell you about the Homestead Act itself. Then I will tell you how important the Emancipation Act and the Pacific Railway Act were to make the Homestead Act successful.

Two key presidents were leading forces for the Homestead Act. The country was at war, there was a dream of a transcontinental railroad, and the slaves were about to receive their freedom. Rose Houk (2000) explains in her handbook Homestead National Monument of America that President Jefferson paid the French for the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. This doubled the size of the United States but the land was seen as uninhabitable. Ms. Houk also describes the difficulty our government had populating the area which ultimately led to President Lincoln signing the Homestead Act.

A combination of events and people helped to drive the homesteaders west and homesteading became a solution for many problems. In Union Pacific Country, by Robert Athearn (1971), it details how the transcontinental railroad helped people move to their new homes with the signing of the Pacific Railway Act in 1862. A preliminary emancipation of the slaves was issued in 1862 in addition to the climax of the Civil War as described in Robert Goldston’s (1968) book Negro Revolution. Now that I have talked a little about what was happening in our country, I will explain the Homestead Act in more depth.

Ms. Houk tells us that the Act was actually signed on May 20, 1862 but didn’t become law until January 1, 1863. I want you to know what it actually took to become a “homesteader” according to the Homestead Act. The land was “free” but with provisions. Ms. Houk relates in her handbook, that any person could claim land by paying a filing fee between $6-$18 dollars. They had 6 months to “establish residence” and had to live there 5 years before filing for their title/patent.

This same handbook also tells us that the Homestead Act was in force through 1976 in the lower 48 states with the last official claim filed in Alaska in 1986. This was only 4 years after my high school graduation!

Many different types of people wanted a chance of new life with the promise of “free” land. In Mr. Athearn’s book Union Pacific Country, I found that immigrants from Europe and white U.S. citizens were the best known homesteaders. In Search of Canaan, also by Robert Athearn (1978), vividly portrays another “group” not as well-known which consisted of the slaves who needed a new home after being freed. These free slaves were escaping fear and repression and were enticed by the railroad, investors, religious groups and politicians to the “land of Eden.”

A key ingredient that made the Homestead Act successful was the Emancipation Act. The Emancipation Act was passed and this left many previous slaves homeless. It is hard for me to imagine the fear and stress that these African-Americans had to face. Huge numbers of slaves moved to Kansas in droves in the late 1870’s, and was referred to as the Exodus by Athearn In Search of Canaan (1978). In Search of Canaan by Athearn also tells us about several African-American land prospectors who encouraged this movement to Kansas. The best known town, which still exists, is Nicodemus, Kansas, which was established in 1878.

The book Negro Revolution by Robert Goldston depicts the true feelings of the Negroes in this time period. They had no desire to return to Africa (as was expected) after living in a civilized society (Goldston, 1968). The land was considered unwelcoming and uninhabitable, contradicting the stories pushing the slaves to become homesteaders. In Search of Canaan by Athearn tells us of the harsh climate, poor crops, meager supplies, low wages and disease that they endured. Mr. Athearn also portrays a less than welcome atmosphere from the people who lived in this land of “Eden.” Regardless, these black people were leveraged for political gain and used by the railroad as cheap labor as Athearn explains in Union Pacific Country (Athearn, 1971).

People had a dream of a “transcontinental railroad” and were motivated by greed and the Homestead Act to move forward with a plan. The people behind the railroads had a strong desire for wealth and the money raised would answer the nation’s debt problems so they became relentless in pushing their “dream” forward. I want you to think as you listen to my next point on railroads about the immense amount of planning, investment and diligence required to build the transcontinental railways. The railways became the mode of transporting people and supplies to the West. Union Pacific Country by Athearn has many illustrations showing how the railroads strongly advertised to further their goals by moving people to their new homesteads.

Ms. Houk confirms in her handbook The Homestead National Monument of America that the Pacific Railway Act was initially passed in 1862 and revised in 1864. The earliest settlers had arrived by wagon, but quickly used the railroads as a better means of reaching their new homesteads. The intention of the transcontinental railroad was to help the military defend the country. However, there were many greedy people that profited from this venture. Railroaded written by Richard White (2011) is very graphic in explaining how bankers and investors planned to capitalize on building the transcontinental railroad in answer to the nation’s debt. Mr. White’s book tells us of the methods and complexity of their plans, which is similar to what our country has more recently experienced.

I have just given you information about how railroads tied three very different pieces of legislation together for a very successful homesteading process. I now understand it was a combination of events that made the Homestead Act truly successful, rather than only the promise of “free” land. It took the vision & will of Presidents Jefferson and Lincoln, the emancipation of our slaves, and the dream of a transcontinental railroad combined together with the Homestead Act to make it successful. I don’t think I ever connected the homesteading of our land by black people because after all their hardships, many of them moved on to improve their lives.

References:

Athearn, R. (1971). Union Pacific country. New York, NY: Rand McNally and Company.
Athearn, R. (1978). In search of Canaan. Lawrence, KS: The Regents Press of Kansas.
Goldston, R. (1968). The Negro revolution. New York, NY: The MacMillan Company.
Houk, R. (2000). Homestead National Monument of America. Washington, PA: Eastern National.
White, R. (2011). Railroaded. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company Inc.

Homesteaders Used Barb Wire

2011-11-18T09:00:00.000-06:00

Fencing and Barbed Wire

By Travis Maresh

Southeast Community College

Imagine a world without any defined boundaries, a world where cattle and livestock roamed free. Everyone has seen barbed wire before, whether it is on a ranch or in a movie. I have been involved with fencing and barbed wire growing up so I have decided to learn more about the beginning of barbed wire. Today I will inform you about fencing and barbed wire. I am going to teach you about the history of barbed wire, the role barbed wire played in the 1900’s, and how barbed wire has evolved.

The history of barbed wire dates back to 1868 with Michael Kelly and patents had been awarded through 1874. However, according to C. Moore "Barbed Wire: It Isn't Just For Fences" (2003) there are more than 570 patented wires. The U.S. patent office recognized Michael Kelly’s patent in November of 1868. Kelly took two wires and twisted them together, resulting in a place for the barbs. Joseph Glidden received his patent in November of 1874 for his type of barbed wire. Glidden improved on Kelly’s design by locking the barb in place rather than hanging loosely. Glidden also invented the machinery to mass produce this type of wire.

Barbed wire played a large role in the Midwest. It was cheap to produce, easy to put up and needed little maintenance. Wooden fences were too costly, because of the lack of lumber in the open plains. Barbed wire was the solution to many of the farmers’ problems as barbed wire fences were much more cost effective.

According to McCallum (1965) "The Wire that Fenced the West," the farmers and the cowmen had two different opinions about fences. The cowmen were for the unwritten Law of the Open Range, which was the free access to grass and water. The farmers had to put up fences so the cattle would not ruin and trample their crops. This difference in opinion about the barbed wire fencing resulted in range wars between the two groups. Since watering holes were blocked, the cattlemen cut the fences, and in some cases lives were lost. According to "Fencing the Great Plains: the History of Barbed Wire," (2011) homesteaders used barbed wire to mark their boundaries.

Today, barbed wire is still prevalent in our lives, we can see it holding prisoners, keeping unwanted intruders away, or protecting valuables. According to M. Bellis "History of Barbed Wire or the Thorny Fence," Barbed wire has been used in multiple wars since its invention. Miles of barbed wire were strung in World War I. British military manuals which date back to 1888 encouraged the use of barbed wire. Today, barbed wire is used in prisons, construction sites, and storage sites. To protect supplies barbed wire has been put up around buildings.

Barbed wire has been used in many ways; it has developed from a cattle fence into a protection device. Barbed wire helped farmers and homesteaders in numerous ways, protecting crops and establishing boundaries. From containing cattle to being used as a war mechanism barbed wire has changed over the course of its history.

I hope you enjoyed learning more about fencing and barbed wire. I have shared with you the history of barbed wire, the role it played in the 1900’s, and the evolution of barbed wire. We still use barbed wire 150 years after its invention, whether it is to confine cattle, or as a military device, barbed wire has come a long way. Fences and barbed wire gave the Midwest boundaries and established property lines. Yes, the cattle still roam free, just inside a fence.

References:

Good fences make good farms. (2011). The Wilson Quarterly, 35(3), 63. Retrieved from OmniFile Full Text Select database.

Bellis, M. (n.d.). History of barbed wire or the thorny fence. Inventors. About.com. Retrieved November 02, 2011, from http://inventors.about.com/od/bstartinventions/a/BarbedWire.h

Fencing the Great Plains: The history of barbed wire. (2011). National Park Service. Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/home/planyourvisit/upload/Barbed%20Wire%20Brochure,%20final.pdf

McCallum, H. D., & McCallum, F. T. (1965). The wire that fenced the West. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Moore, C. (2003). Barbed wire: It isn't just for fences. Antiques and Collecting Magazine, 108(8), 62-7. Retrieved from OmniFile Full Text Select database.

Subscribe to News from HOME

2011-11-12T13:40:00.004-06:00

Subscribe to the official newsletter of the Homestead of America National Monument here.

2012 the 150th Anniversary of Homestead Act

2011-11-07T14:56:00.002-06:00

Dear Friends:

Next year we will be commemorating a story we know very well, a story that covers 270 million acres, is tied to 93 million Americans, spanned 123 years and is directly tied to the development of the largest agriculture superpower in the history of the World!

In 2012 our Nation will observe the 150th Anniversary -- in what has been said is one of the most significant laws ever created in the history of the United States -- The Homestead Act of 1862! We are contacting you to ensure you are aware of this anniversary and to seek your consideration in joining us in commemorating this epic event in American History!

While communities and organizations throughout our Nation are preparing for this anniversary it is important for us to remember that Homestead National Monument of America, Southeast Nebraska and our community will be at the center of this anniversary.

Already a number of activities and special projects are under way including:

• A major national symposium will be conducted with the University of Nebraska-Lincoln; this event will take place in Lincoln and at the monument.

• Main Street Beatrice will be decorated with commemorative banners and planning special exhibitions.

• Special quilt programs will be presented.

• 44-1 kids will be engaged,

• A special national exhibit on exploration will be brought to the monument.

• The Nebraska Humanities Council will be bringing to the community their 2012 Chautauqua Event.

• The Historic Homestead Act of 1862 Document signed by President Abraham Lincoln will be traveling to Homestead from the National Archives in Washington. D.C.; this document is considered, like the U.S. Constitution or Bill of Rights, to be one of our Nation's 100 most important documents.

• Plans are also under way for a major event at the monument on Sunday, May 20, the day on which the law was signed by President Lincoln.

Further activities include working closely with the Beatrice Chamber of Commerce during this historic year to make the 2012 annual Homestead Days event extra special.

We hope you, your business or organization will consider joining in this historic event! Ideas on how you can join in the fun include:

• If your business or organization is planning on giving away promotional items in 2012, consider highlighting the Homestead Act's 150 th Anniversary.

• If you are planning on participating in the annual Homestead Days Parade, start thinking now about your entry. If you plan on tossing promotional items to the crowd, we hope you might consider highlighting our community's tie to homesteading.

• You might consider special displays, window decorations or promotions.

• Your group or organization might want to feature presentations or programs looking closer at the Homestead Act and its effect on our community or Nation.

• You might wish to sponsor one of many special programs coming to the community or monument.

• And we are sure you have great ideas that are not even listed here.

Fifty years ago our community threw a party for the Homestead Act's Centennial that included a variety of activities: a Proclamation signed by President John F. Kennedy, three parades, a Miss Nebraska Pageant, retail promotions, a new postal stamp was issued, along with many other community programs. In doing this the community gained pride while having a great time.

We hope you will consider joining us for afro, filled sesquicentennial! Should you wish to discuss any ideas and would like to call on us for assistance, the Friends of Homestead, along with the staff at Homestead National Monument of America, stand ready to assist you. You can reach me at 402-223-7217, or call the monument at 402-223-3514.

Diane Vicars
President
Friends of Homestead

P.S. You can pick up your commemorative poster at the monument starting October 1, 2011.

Poetry Slam at Homestead

2011-09-29T09:00:00.000-05:00

Uploaded by BeatriceDailySun on Sep 28, 2011

Students express themselves through poetry competition

The art of SLAM

"From “I am the crumbles at the bottom of the cookie jar,” to “If tomatoes are fruit, does that make ketchup a smoothie?” students from across the state gathered at the Homestead National Monument to show of and improve their creative writing skills..."

Read more: http://www.beatricedailysun.com/news/article_38e6cd74-ea4a-11e0-a708-001cc4c03286.html#ixzz1ZMzlPlde

Learning to write

2011-09-09T07:00:00.000-05:00

While sitting at Freeman School oneafternoon leafing through the Spencerian Penmanship booklet I started thinkingabout the amount of time students must have spent perfecting each stroke. I alsowondered about the possibilities for disaster with a six-year-old, a pen and a bottle of ink. I just could notimagine how their little hands could make those seven specific strokes neededto write the Spencerian alphabet.

by Doris Martin, Ranger; Homestead National Monument of America

After doing some research I discovered thatpenmanship instruction did not begin until the student was in second or thirdgrade. “In America’s heyday of education children of eight years old to adultsof eighty learned to write the Spencerian way,” according to the Theory ofSpencerian Penmanship booklet.

Before the age of 8 children learned toread but not write. Learning to print was not taught until the 1920s whenManuscript Printing was introduced. Students were then taught to print first andthen moved to cursive writing. For example, Abraham Lincoln would not have beentaught to print. But he would have spentmany hours learning how to write in cursive. According to The Theory of Spencerian Penmanship, Platt Rogers Spencer, “thefather of American handwriting,” advised his students to practice six to twelvehours a day. He believed that masteringhis script would make someone refined, genteel, and upstanding. Todaypenmanship lessons are developed so teachers spend about 15 minutes a day onpenmanship.

Even the idea that all people needed toknow how to write was slow to develop. In the 1700s many were taught to read sothey could read the Bible but few were taught to write. “Because reading andwriting were understood to serve entirely different ends, instruction in onewas divorced from instruction in the other. Reading was taught first, as auniversal spiritual necessity; writing was taught second, and then only tosome,” according to Tamara Plakins Thornton in Handwriting in America: A Cultural History.

The teaching of handwriting in thenineteenth century was closely associated with character building. “The letterswere formed by command with the teacher calling out letter elements and thestudent simultaneously writing them down on the page; the letters mysteriouslyappeared out of the assembled elements,” according to A History of Learning toWrite.

“Such exercises were seen as characterbuilding,” the article continues, “A sample of someone’s script became arecommendation of industry and self-discipline.” Victorians emphasized the “moralnature of the individual” and handwriting was seen as a method for “characterformation.”

The final workbook in theSpencerian series includes page afterpage of sentences intended to improve a student’s character including “Betterto live well than long,” “Hold truth in great esteem,” and “Let your promisesbe sincere.” Students were expected to copy each sentence 15 times in correctSpencerian form.

Handwriting was also viewed as aphysical act. The key word now was muscularity…and the most pressing need wasto exert control over the body of the penmanship pupil. “Victorian manualsspelled out methods whereby extreme levels of physical control might bemaintained over pupils. Teachers distributed writing materials in numbered,standardized steps (“Position,” “Open books,” “Monitors about face”) marked bypredetermined signals. They counted out loud or barked commands (“up,” “down’”“left curve,” “quick”) as pupils performed their handwriting exercises; somemanuals recommended the use of a metronome. By such means, commented theSpencerian authors with pride, “entire classes may soon be trained to work inconcert, all the pupils beginning to write at the same moment, and executingthe same letter, and portion of a letter simultaneously.” Thus will thepenmanship class proceed “with all the order, promptness and precision of amilitary drill,” according to Thornton.

Good penmanship was highly prized.“Indeed, concurred a Boston school principal, ‘to write illegibly or badly isalmost to forfeit one’s respectability,” according to Laura Doremus in“Character in Handwriting.”

A slate and slate pencil were used byyounger students while older students, especially in rural schools, used steelnibbed pens, an ink sponge and practice paper. And some schools even had aspecial teacher for penmanship instruction. “We did have a man for a special writingteacher, Prof. Carrier, who fitted little leather harnesses on each right handand instructed us in arm movement, to write a beautiful Spencerian hand, butwhen he left the room, these unruly hands resume their original scribblinghabit,” said Alice Laura Stevenson in the Growing Up in Michigan, 1880-1895 onlineexhibit.

Now as I look at those SpencerianPenmanship booklets I not only think about small children using ink I alsothink about the amount of time andeffort which older students spent perfecting their handwriting and all thedebate today about if it is even needed in today’s computer society.

Sources:

Thorton, Tamara Plakins. Handwritingin America, A Cultural History. 1st. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,1996. Print.

Clayton, Ewan. "A History of Learning to Write." 13. Web. 14Aug 2011.http://www.ejf.org.uk/Resources/ejhandw.pdf

Theory of Spencerian Penmanship. 1st. Fenton:Michigan, 1985. Print.

"School Days." Growing Upin Michigan, 1880-1895. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Aug 2011. http://www.hal.state.mi.us/mhc/growingup/schooldays.html

I never saw a suit of underwear until I was 17 years old

2011-09-03T14:12:00.000-05:00

Hardships were a way of life for homesteaders. I came across this letter while doingresearch and was particularly moved by it. It came from a woman named Lois to another woman named Jennie. That is all I know. It sounds like she is recalling herexperiences growing up. The letteroffers perspective about the hardships on a homestead asseen through a child’s eyes. It isinteresting to think about what she is saying. Today I wanted to share it with you.

Dear Jennie,

Our nearest neighbor lived two miles away and they could not read orwrite. I never saw a suit of underwearuntil I was 17 years old and that revelation didn’t belong to anybody in in ourfamily. The only books in our house werea Bible and a catalog. There were sixmembers in our family, but you see, we had two rooms to live in, including thedining room which was also the kitchen. Everybody worked at our house. Wethought everybody else in the world had gravy and bread for breakfast, liver andcrackling hoe cake for dinner, buttermilk and cornpone for supper, becausethat’s what we had.

Some of us wore brogan shoes occasionally in the winter time. We had nice white shirts for summer timeuse. We slept on straw ticks and pillowswere not thought of or required. Ididn’t know money would rattle until I was nearly grown. Father got hold of two half dollars at thesame time and let us hear them rattle. Taxes were no higher but harder to pay. We owned two kerosene lamps, neither of which had a chimney. Our house wasn’t sealed, but two of our roomshad lofts over them. We had a glasswindow in our “company” room.

Or nicest piece of furniture as I now remember was a homemade rockingchair. Our beds were of the slat or tight rope variety. We went to school two or three months in theyear, but not in a bus. We attendedchurch once a month, but not in a car. We used a two mule buck board. Wedressed up on Sunday’s, but not in silks or satins. We sopped our molasses, ate our own meat andconsidered rice a delicacy for only the preachers.

We heard a lot about cheese but never saw any; got a stick of candy andthree raisins for Christmas and were happy. We loved father and mother and were never hungry; enjoyed going naked;didn’t want much; expected nothing and that’s why our so-called hard times arenot so hard on me.

Bertand Lois

Blake Bell

Historian; Homestead National Monument of America

Conserving Prairie History

2011-08-26T09:00:00.029-05:00

On the National Parks Service website for the Homestead National Monument of America which was last updated May, 2011, Adolph Murie is quoted in 1940 as saying, “In restoring the prairie grasslands the ultimate aim is to approach as near the original as possible. How near the original we can come is not known. But it would seem desirable to make an effort early in the program to restore some of the more prominent spring, summer and fall flowers to show a part of Nature which no doubt gave some cheer to the first settlers.”

By Katie Graham
Southeast Community College

Today I will inform you about the efforts to conserve the grasses and forbs, or flowers, of the prairie. I will speak about why it is important to conserve this quickly fading ecosystem, what is being done at the Homestead National Monument to conserve the prairie, and what is being done right here on our own campus [Southeast Community College] to conserve a piece of history.

Countless prairie restoration projects exist over all of North America today. Conservationists are trying to restore an ecosystem that is quickly fading. Once this natural habitat is destroyed completely, none of us will be able to enjoy what we never appreciated as being there in the first place. The tall grass prairies, which use to cover billions of acres, has now become the most extinct ecosystem in all of North America according to Sarah Osterhoudt and her article A Prairie Primer in OnEarth an online journal from the fall of 2001.

There is debate over what constitutes being restored, though. It can take many centuries to bring back the original assortment of soil, plants, and animals. It is not enough to throw down seeds and hope they produce a prairie. According to John Carey and his article Little Habitat on the Prairie Only Remnants Remain of the Nation's Original Prairie, and Biologists Are Scrambling to Understand and Restore What is Left from National Wildlife (2002), the hand of humans is needed first to replant the original vegetation where needed and then to keep it healthy, along with the occasional need for orchestrated fire and grazing.

The grasses and forbs, or flowers, of the prairie have begun adapting over the last thousand years or so to conditions that others plants and trees can’t handle. According to Katherine Kerlin and her article in the online journal E, entitled Return of the Native: Natural Prairies Slowly Make a Comeback in May of 2002, the native vegetation has adapted their root systems into one that can delve 12 to 20 feet into the ground which helps control erosion and adds to water quality by absorbing waste runoff. As you can see in this illustration, the prairie grasses have extensive root systems that develop before the plants ever start reaching out above ground. Above ground, the native plants help in snow control and preventing drifts across roads and can reach up to 10 or more feet. (Kerlin, 2002).

Now that I have told you a little about trying to restore the prairie ecosystem, one that has become the most extinct in North America, and how the grasses and forbs have begun adapting to harsh conditions, let’s talk about what we are doing here in Nebraska to conserve the prairie we have.

Nebraska is home to the second oldest prairie conservation in the United States which started in 1939. And while we may not all come from Nebraska, conserving any prairie in North America should be something we all care about. Through the restoration project at the Homestead National Monument, park staff has been able to bring back many of the original and diverse plants of the prairie (National Park Service, 2011).

On the National Parks Service website for the Homestead National Monument of America, James and Debacker in their Plant Community Monitoring Trend Report from 2007, state that currently there are 116 different species of plants present at the Homestead.

In an interview on August 14, 2011, with Jesse Bolli, who is a Resource Management Specialist at the Homestead National Monument, about 60 acres of the land is native trees, 100 acres is the prairie, which is broken into 20% for thicket, 25% for grasses and roughly 55% for forbs and other plants. The main ways they help control and encourage the prairie growth is through controlled burns, some mowing, and little herbicide. Controlled burns at the Homestead started in 1970. In 1990 the rotation was changed to a three year rotation and again in 2004 to burn 2/5 every year, taking the 4 year to rest. The Homestead uses herbicide only when needed and on a low level setting so as not to spray a large area.

Now that I have told you about the efforts at the Homestead National monument in restoring and conserving the prairie, let’s take a look a little closer to us and see what SCC is doing to conserve the natural prairie. Southeast Community College started its restoration program in 2007 to conserve what they can of the original plants. In an interview on August 14, 2011 with Nate Walker, who works here on the SCC campus in the Prairie Partnership office, SCC began with a high diversity planting with seeds from the Prairie Plains Resource Institute. Only local seed from around Nebraska was chosen to be planted, because plants outside Nebraska may affect other plant species growth or may be too weak to thrive under our soil conditions.

There were 16 species of grasses, five species of sedges, 17 species of legumes, 41 species of composites and 40 species of forbs planted in the high diversity planting which totals about 119 species. Another 10 to 20 species were collected and added later and about 10 species of weedy natives were present naturally (N. Walker, 2011).

The SCC prairie conservation is in its fourth growing season now. They had their last scheduled burn in February of 2008 which they do every three years, and that is why the flowers are so big now. After a scheduled burn, which is fed by the tall grass fuel, the flowers have a chance to take over and flourish. The grasses are usually dominant in summer and fall (N. Walker, 2011).

As we see in these pictures I took here at SCC, the flowers are tall and vibrant, while the grasses are a little shorter yet. This makes for better health for the ecosystem. The cycle of burning, grazing(which neither SCC nor the Homestead do), produces flowers that are higher in the graze lands and burn spots and eventually give way to the grasses in the summer and fall months (N. Walker, 2011).

We have just taken a look at what SCC and the Prairie Partnership office is doing to conserve the natural plants found in Nebraska through there high diversity planting and maintenance of our little patch of history. Thank you for listening as I informed you about the efforts to conserve the grasses and forbs of the prairie. Numerous restoration projects are in swing all over North America to conserve a quickly fading ecosystem, Nebraska is home to the second oldest prairie conservation in America, and Southeast Community College began its restoration project in 2007 to aid in conserving a part of history. It may take hundreds of years to restore a prairie close to its originality, but it’s worth the time and effort to save a little piece of our own history for generations to come.

References:

Bolli, J. Resource Management Specialist at the Homestead National Monument of America
(personal communication, interview, August, 14, 2011).

Carey, J. (2000, June-July). Little habitat on the prairie - only remnants remain of the nation's original prairie, and biologists are scrambling to understand and restore what is left. National Wildlife.

James, K., & DeBacker, M. (2007). Plant community monitoring trend report. Homestead National Monument of America.

Kerlin, K. (2002, May-June). Return of the native: Natural prairies slowly make a comeback. E, 13, 3, 22.

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior. (2011, May). Nature and science. Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/home/naturescience/index.htm

Osterhoudt, S. (2001, Fall). A prairie primer. OnEarth, 23, 3, 27.

Walker, N. Prairie Partnership at SCC (personal communication, interview, August, 9, 2011)

Photo credits: Katie Graham

Homesteading in Alaska

2011-08-19T09:00:00.016-05:00

Has anyone here ever wondered what it was like Homesteading in Alaska? Well, I did and I am here to share with all of you what I learned and discovered about the challenges and obstacles homesteader faced in Alaska.

Now, take a moment and imagine what it was like living in Alaska during the late 1800’s into the mid 1900’s when the United Stated first purchased Alaska and homesteaders began claiming the land. In the article Alaska Division of Economic Development (2008a) the Department of Natural Resources states that homesteaders were coming from all over the United States to stake a claim to the land in Alaska.

My name is Samantha Johnson and I am here to share with you what I found during my research on Homesteading in Alaska. I learned that the Department of Natural Resources, the Division of Economic Development and the Bureau of Land Management in Alaska had taken several steps to ensure that the land in Alaska available for sale had certain requirements to meet prior to the actual sale of the land to any person. These organizations were dedicated to the land and the people and ways to preserve yet develop the land.

Today I will be explaining to you about the early years of homesteading in Alaska and the guidelines the potential buyer had to follow to preserve the natural beauty of the land but still meet the requirements to legally acquire the land patent (Alaska, 2008a).

I will be describing what steps are required in Alaska to stake a claim on the land under the Homestead Act. I will inform each of you of the building and cultivation requirements that homesteaders faced and how they managed to accomplish them. I want each of you to know what types of crops homesteaders were able to grow and what kinds of protection they were able to build to keep their crops safe from wildlife.

After the United States purchased Alaska the land became available to homesteaders under the Homestead Act of 1862. The land became available for anyone to purchase as long as certain requirements were met. The Department of Natural Resources in Alaska claim that most of the land currently owned today was acquired after 1958 when Alaska first became a union state (Alaska, 2008a).

The Homestead Act allowed one homestead of 160 acres maximum for each family to stake claim in. Homesteaders were then required to live on the land, have a residence built on the land, and begin farming a minimum of 10% of the land within the first five years to receive legal ownership (Alaska, 2008a).

There were several steps that were taken before staking a claim in Alaska and once the homesteader completed the steps required to seek ownership he or she would find out if the filing of land ownership was accepted or rejected. Some homesteaders had to apply more than once to receive rights to claim the land (Alaska, 2008a).

The first step in seeking ownership of the land for homesteading was locating the land to stake a claim in and file any and all paperwork with the Bureau of Land Management in Alaska (Alaska, 2008a).

The second step in staking a claim to the land was to purchase it once the buyer was approved. Purchasing the land could be done by paying for it in a lump sum or by making a financial agreement and signing a contract with the government. Homesteaders were able to purchase a total of 160 acres of land for $20.00 (Alaska, 2008a).

The State of Alaska and the Department of Natural Resources worked together to ensure several guidelines were met before land ownership was approved to potential buyers. These guideline included living and farming requirements within a certain time frame before legal ownership was granted (Alaska, 2008b).

Once the buyer was approved to acquire land for homestead he or she must live on the property for a certain period of time or risk losing the land. The article Alaska Land Offering (2011) by the Department of Natural Resources and under Article VIII of the Alaska Constitution states “It is the policy of the State to encourage the settlement of its land and development of its resources by making them available for maximum use consistent with the public interest.”

Some homesteaders were so amped to start homesteading they set up tents on the land to live in until their main homes were built to show they were willing to follow the living on the land requirement. Even though homesteaders had to keep making changes to their tents and add fallen tree branches to keep the cold out they managed to survive the long winter months of Alaska (Alaska, 2008a).

Since homesteading in Alaska took several steps and certain requirements to meet before land could be used, the families within Alaska all worked together to make their living quarters more suitable for each member of the family.

When land was approved for homesteading and the building of homes started, the first proved up was to build a cabin. Homesteaders needed to build a cabin to withstand the harsh cold months of Alaska’s winter. One cabin is still in use over 40 year after it was built and is similar to the cabin being rented in the article Homesteading Challenges (1997) by Dexter, Dexter, Hausmann and IIten.

While building a home was not always an easy task, homesteaders in Alaska managed to make their living quarters suitable for long cold wintery months. Homesteaders often liven in small living quarter to keep the heat in a tighter space.

With limited resources available to homesteader’s and the lack of transportation, building equipment, machinery, supplies and tools homesteaders often relied on the help from a neighbors for these items (Alaska, 2008b).

Getting help from a neighbor was hard to do when you had to travel by horseback and travel some 15 miles or more to reach the closest neighbors house, cabin or tent. Some homesteader even traveled by dog sled to reach a helping hand from their neighbor (Alaska, 2008a).

Using building materials to build a cabin was a struggle when homesteaders had to transport materials to their land before construction could begin. The author Harrington and Merken describe in their article Life on America’s Last Frontier: Alaska’s (1995) about their experiences sitting in a outhouse in - 40 degree temperatures and giving a new meaning to “freezing your buns off.”

Since the building of the cabin was difficult to master quickly most homesteaders managed to complete the first prove up within the first year of claiming the land. When homesteader finished the first prove up he or she had to immediately begin working on the second prove up to ensure they could meet all requirement to receive land ownership (Harrington & Merken, 1995).

After the first prove up of the cabins were complete homesteaders moved on to the second prove up which was cultivating a portion of the land without harming to the natural beauty of the land (Alaska, 2008a).

Cultivating the land was a challenge when the Department of Natural Resources required all land owners keep the land free from being destroyed by removing trees or disturbing the lands natural beauty. Meanwhile having equipment available for cultivating the land was also a struggle for the homesteaders (Merrick, 2000).

Homesteaders often found it difficult to meet homesteading requirements where cultivation was concerned, because Alaska was strict about preserving the lands natural beauty (Merrick, 2000).

With issues meeting the cultivation requirements for the land ownership, Homesteaders were granted the right to remove some trees by chainsaw to meet the land cultivation guidelines (Alaska, 2008a).

After removing the trees the homesteaders were able to meet the required cultivation requirement of a minimum of 10 percent or 1/8 of the land for cultivation. “Homesteaders in Alaska were soon participating in cropping activities that today are not widely considered to be customary or traditional to Alaska Native communities” as the authors Loring and Geriach describe in their article Outpost Gardening in Interior Alaska: Food System Innovation and the Alaska Native Gardens of the 1930’3 through the 1970’s (2010).

Once homesteaders were cultivating the land they soon faced a problem with keeping the wildlife animals away from their cultivation areas. Homesteaders soon began to build so called fences, since they did not have sufficient material to build a fence they used the material they had at their disposal (Loring, Geriach, 2010).

With the help of a 48’ x 24’ garden fence homesteaders were able to keep wildlife like moose out of their cultivation areas during the first five years of homesteading to receive their legal land patent. According to the article Homesteading in Alaska (2000) by Michael Merrick not only did the fences help keep the cultivation areas safe from wildlife they also started building root cellars to grow a wider variety of crops that have a difficult time growing in the colder climates.

Homesteaders have been able to grow items such as; potatoes, cabbage, carrots and broccoli (Merrick, 2000). And in more depth Merrick (2000) describes more about the crops homesteaders were able to grow and how some homesteaders were able to start cultivating the land for fish, which has boomed in the last two decades.

While acquiring the land was challenging for homesteaders, meeting the homesteading requirement were even tougher to meet. With the building of a residence to the cultivation of the land, homesteaders have worked together to make Alaska what it is today.

While the department of natural resources and the state of Alaska were adamant to keep the land in Alaska pure and free from harm they had to allow some destruction of the natural state to allow homesteaders to build and cultivate.

Today I talked to you about the requirements the homesteaders had to be met before and after the land was purchased in Alaska and how the Department of Natural Resources website listed the guidelines potential buyer had to follow to preserve the natural beauty of the land but still meet the requirement to legally acquire the land patent.

According to the Department of Natural Resources and the Alaska Division of Economic Development while the government had high expectation for potential land owners they kept the rights to acquire land more difficult in the early 1960’s to ensure the land in Alaska would remain natural. The State of Alaska had opened the doors for potential land owners to seek financial options to purchase the land. However each potential buyer would still have guidelines to meet prior to receiving the land and the legal rights. Meeting the requirement for cultivation was tough for homesteaders to meet when the department of natural resources protected the land in Alaska. Alaska soon began to loosen up on preserving the land when they required cultivation. Cultivation was hard for homesteaders to complete when the removal of trees had to be done before cultivation could begin.

Now I am hoping you understand why I was curious to learn more about homesteading in Alaska. Learning more about the way land was acquired for ownership give more meaning to owning land today. Having restriction on the land you own would be difficult for any homesteader but many Alaska Natives managed to succeed and expand their homesteading option in Alaska.

References

Alaska Department of Natural Resources. (2008a). Alaska Division of Economic Development. Retrieved from http://www.dced.state.ak.us/ded/dev/student_info/learn/homesteading.htm

Alaska Department of Natural Resources. (2008b). Fact sheet, land for Alaskans. Retrieved from http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/factsht/land_for_ak.pdf

Alaska Department of Natural Resources. (2011). Alaska land offerings. Retrieved from http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/landsale/

Dexter, B., Dexter, C., Hausmann, B., & IIten, J. (1997, May –June). “Homesteading challenges.”Countryside & Small Stock Journal, (81)3. Gardening, Landscape and Horticulture. Retrieved from Gale Cengage Learning.

Harrington, E. & Merken, H. (1995, November-December). “Life on America’s last frontier: Alaska.” Countryside & Small Stock Journal, (74)6. Gardening, Landscape and Horticulture. Retrieved from Gale Cengage Learning.

Loring, P.A., & Geriach, S. (2010). Outpost gardening in interior Alaska: Food system innovation and the Alaska native gardens of the 1930s through the 1970s. Ethnohistory, 57(2), 183-199.

Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

You Can, But You Can’t!

2011-08-12T09:00:00.001-05:00

The last blog I posted hopefully brought some clarity to the issue relating to the untrue(ish) statement that African Americans were not allowed to homestead. Another claim that is made when speaking of the Homestead Act, is that immigrants were allowed to come to the United States and claim 160 acres of land as long as they declared their intention to become citizens. Is this true? It has to be right? It is written in the Homestead Act. Again I use the same quote from my last blog article, it reads:

“That any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United States, and who has never borne arms against the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, shall… be entitled to enter one quarter-section or a less quantity of unappropriated public lands.”

It is interesting to read this as it does say ANY person who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen. But, what many people skim over is what follows that seemingly sweeping statement, when it says “as required by the naturalization laws of the United States”. Yes, immigrants could come into the country and claim land under the Homestead Act of 1862, but we have to understand the naturalization laws of the United States examine what period of time in history we are referring to in order to understand who could and who could not become citizens, thus making them eligible to homestead.

First, could Asians homestead? What about people from India? Could all WHITE Europeans homestead? In order to find these answers one must not look at just the history of homesteading, instead a broader scope of American history must be examined. These answers can be found in the complicated history of immigration. The early years of homesteading were, as we know was exclusive to white men and women, because they were the only people that could be considered for citizenship, a necessary criteria to homestead. But the Civil Rights act of 1866 and the ratification of the 14^th Amendment in 1868 was designed to prevent excluding people from citizenship based on race or color. But, if the United States could prevent people from entering the country then this would not be an issue. So, in 1870 Congress passed the Naturalization Act. The Act limited citizenship “white persons and persons of African descent”.[1] This effectively barred Asians from becoming citizens of the United States, thus making it impossible for them to homestead. The relationship between Asians and the United States concerning immigration is filled with prejudice and discrimination. In 1882 Congress was more forthright about their disposition when they passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. It wouldn’t be until 1942, a full 60 years, before Congress abolished the Chinese Exclusion Act. By the end of the 1940’s all restrictions preventing Asians from obtaining U.S. citizenship were abolished.[2] This, in effect, gave Asians the opportunity to homestead.

What about people from India? This was a bit more tricky because India was an Asian sub-continent and anthropologists considered them to be of the same race as white people. Few had obtained citizenship, but in 1923 in the landmark case U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind, the Supreme Court ruled that people from India were not allowed to become citizens. The court conceded that they are “Caucasians” but that they are not “white”, arguing that “the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences.”[3] Obviously, this would have made it impossible for people from India to homestead. It would be 23 years before the United States would allow people from India the opportunity to become citizens.

And finally, could all white Europeans become U.S. citizens thus being allowed to claim land under the Homestead Act? The simple answer is no! This time the exclusion had nothing to do with race, instead it centered on political ideology. History books write about the “Red Scare” of the 1950’s as the U.S. and U.S.S.R. began the decades long Cold War, but this was a continuation of a fear that had begun much earlier. Political ideology like communism, socialism, anarchism and Marxism were seen as threats to the United States going back to the 19^th century. After President William McKinley was assassinated in 1901 by a Polish anarchist, Congress passed the Anarchist Exclusion Act, preventing people with “radical” political ideology from becoming U.S. citizens.[4] The Act would be expanded in 1918 in the wake of a successful socialist revolution in Russia. The legislation would remain largely in effect for the rest of the Homesteading Era! It was expanded in 1950 with the passage of the Internal Security Act and would not be repealed until 1971.

So, what does all this mean to the Homestead Act of 1862? I think here it is important to note that the Homestead Act did not exclude any population, however, it deferred to the naturalization laws of the United States. What was unique about the Homestead Act was its inclusive nature. Because it deferred to other laws like naturalization, the Homestead Act was quite adaptable to fluctuating shifts in social, legal, and political ideology. And it was this adaptability that made the Homestead Act relevant for 123 years.

[1]University of Huston Department of History, “Digital History,” University of Huston, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/immigration_chron.cfm (accessed July 26, 2011).

[2] Harvard University Library Open Collections Program, “Aspiration, Acculturation, and Impact: Immigration to the United States, 1789-1930,” Harvard University Library, http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration (accessed July26, 2011).

[3]http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5076/, United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, Certificate From The Circuit Court Of Appeals For The Ninth Circuit., No. 202. Argued January 11, 12, 1923.—Decided February 19, 1923, United States Reports, v. 261, The Supreme Court, October Term, 1922, 204–215.

[4] Harvard University Library Open Collections Program, http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration (accessed July 27, 2011).

Was Homesteading only for White People?

2011-07-22T09:00:00.000-05:00

There are some aspects of the Homestead Act of 1862 that are often misunderstood. One primary cause for the confusion was the length of time that homesteading legislation was on the books; 123 years total. In today’s blog I would like to talk about one misconception (of which there are several that I will address in the coming weeks). In this series of blogs I hope to bring some clarity to issues of confusion related to the Homestead Act. The first topic I would like to address is the idea that African American’s could not homestead. Those of us familiar with the history of homesteading have encountered homesteaders from every background, regardless of race or gender. But a common statement that I often read is that the Homestead Act was only for white people. This can’t be true can it? Well, actually, there is some truth to the statement that only white people could homestead.

When I first arrived at Homestead National Monument of America last year I was surprised at the diversity of homesteaders. The pictures in the museum and archives showed women, African Americans, American Indians, and immigrants homesteading. I, quite frankly, was amazed at the progressive nature of this legislation passed in 1862. 1862 is not a year I think of as being the most socially tolerant. But, I have come to realize the liberal nature of the Homestead Act is not always applicable when you view it on a historical timeline. In 1862, when the Act was passed, and on January 1, 1863, when the legislation became law the United States was a very different place than it would become less than a decade, half a century, and a century later.

It is only when you place the Homestead Act within its historical context that the progressive nature of the legislation emerges. What about African Americans? Strictly speaking, by the letter of the law, when the Homestead Act went into effect in 1863, African Americans were NOT allowed to homestead. How could this be, so much has been written about African American homesteaders? The answer is actually relatively simple and it can be found in the very first line of the Homestead Act:

I am only concerned here with the section that said you had to be “a citizen of the United States” or file a declaration of intention to become a citizen. This is important because in 1863 when the legislation took effect, African Americans were not allowed to become U.S. citizens or declare their intentions because it was not legally possible for them to obtain citizenship.

African American’s were not allowed to become citizens until the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was passed, granting citizenship to people born in the United States regardless of race or color; an Act that then had to be backed by an amendment to the U.S. Constitution two years later when the 14^th Amendment was ratified. The Homestead Act had been on the books for three years before African Americans were allowed to become U.S. citizens, thus allowing them to homestead. So, in effect, when people say only white people were allowed to homestead, they are technically correct IF they are referring to the first three years the legislation was on the books.[1]

It may or may not have been the intention of the authors of the Homestead Act to consider a future United States that included African American citizens who would be allowed to homestead when they drafted the legislation, this, I’m sure, would be impossible to determine. But, the Homestead Act did not exclude African American’s, thus leaving the possibility open, in 1862, to accommodate future African American homesteaders in the event that they would one day become citizens. This became reality in 1866. So, indeed, all homesteaders prior to 1866 were white, but for the remaining 120 years that the Homestead Act was a law African Americans, indeed, did homestead.

However, it is interesting to note that in 1872 the Homestead Act was extensively updated. Updates to a law are known as “Revised Statutes”. Notably, in section 2302 of the Revised Statutes of the Homestead Act, it became illegal to make a “distinction on account of race or color.” The intention of this update was to ensure that African Americans were allowed to homestead and it directly contradicts those who claim that the Homestead Act was only for white people.[2]

Naturally, since I talked about citizenship today, I will follow up next with immigrants that wanted to homestead. Could anybody truly come to the United States and homestead? Find out soon!

[1] American Memory Project, “A Century of Lawmaking for a New A Nation,” Library of Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html. Please visit this website if you are interested in reading the legislation mentioned, including the Homestead Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1866.

[2] Revised Statutes of The United States, 43^rd Cong., 1^st sess. (1873) , Sec. 2302, 424.

Homestead Remembrances: Pioneer Peace

2011-07-15T09:00:00.002-05:00

Atop of a small hill, a rusty gate and a struggling tree protect the long gone pioneers.
Cemetery, six miles East of Daykin in Jefferson County NE, at the intersection of Highway 4 and Highway 15.

by Bernadette Korslund

Cemetery, six miles East of Daykin in Jefferson County NE, at the intersection of Highway 4 and Highway 15. John Stowers died in 1891 at the age of 84. We can imagine him as a strong, hard working and well-respected pioneer. This may explain why, according the inscription, “ he received a crown in heaven.”

St Johns Cemetery, Daykin in Jefferson County, NE.
The expanse of the prairie provides peace and rest to all.

Beatrice Evergreen Cemetery in Gage County, NE.

The early morning light lets your imagination wonder.

Will you meet some ghosts?

Beatrice Evergreen Cemetery in Gage County, NE. Catherine Ahlquist’s tombstone.

Catherine Ahlquist, a daughter of a pioneer. Her tomb is the only one in the cemetery with a human-shape statue.

The truncated tree, the maul and the wedge mark the tomb of a former member of the society of Modern Woodmen of the World, founded on 1890 in Omaha by Joseph Cullen Root.

Saint Joseph Cemetery, Beatrice in Gage County NE. This German inscription is a reminder that the USA started as a melting pot.

Saint Joseph Cemetery, Beatrice in Gage County NE. "Pieta." Christ’s disproportionate hands and feet represent the work of, probably, a local and unschooled artisan. This naive representation translates with strength the grief of the ones left behind.

Cemeteries provide shelter to wild life. It is a favorite refuge for birds, squirrels, rabbits and butterflies.

Homestead camp fire song

2011-07-08T09:00:00.049-05:00

Pinder, nguba, goober, or more commonly known as peanut, is an edible kidney-shaped seed that made its way to America via Africa, South America, and the slave trade. As goober peas were primarily consumed by pigs it did not become a more regularly consumed American food until Civil War soldiers began to eat it.

Goober peas are made by boiling green or raw peanuts in water. Most peanut connoisseurs agree goobers served warm and salty are the most flavorful.

Goober peas are immortalized in the energetic, entertaining song “Goober Peas.” The tongue-in-cheek humor is evident in author Blackmar’s publication credit-nod to composer P. Nutt and lyricist A. Pinder. The upbeat words sound like a tribute to the tasty peanut. Instead, the lyrics are an ironic view on the lack of food available to the Confederacy during the Civil War.

Listen to the song in the video below as sung by one Homestead National Monuments volunteers during the 2010 summer campfire series. At the upcoming July 9, 2011 program Ron Rockenbach will discuss “The Common Soldier in the Civil War” with a music program by Noel Ditmars.

References

Cornelius, S. (2004). Music of the Civil War era American history through music. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Nickels, C. (2010). Civil War humor. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.

Peanut. (2010, July 1). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition.

Mikles, N. (2011, March 16). Peanut primer: Roasted beats boiled for most Sooners. Tulsa World. Retrieved from http://www.tulsaworld.com/scene/article.aspx?subjectID=39&articleID=20110316_39_D1_ULNSai651461

William, L. (1998, Apr/May). Goobers, groundnuts and pindar peas. American Visions, 98, 13, 2. doi: 08849390.

She made home happy

2011-07-01T17:06:00.029-05:00

Tourism is everywhere...

No reservation to make so let’s go right now.

Come alone or invite a friend (this date won’t break your budget!)

I will take you to my hometown cemetery: Beatrice [NE] Evergreen Cemetery. First I can see your surprise, then later your disappointment. I understand but bear with me. I will take you to new lands...

To enjoy Beatrice Evergreen Cemetery at its best, choose the right time of the day either dawn or dusk. I recommend dawn. Get up before the sun and go out for a stroll. The ambiance is peaceful; the cottony morning fog will transport you to dreamy lands.

Many dead surround you but why be afraid? They are resting in peace after a busy, challenging life and now they lay soaking up the tranquil rising sun. No more fussing and buzzing for them. They bathe in the quietude of the land. They have learned how to relax. Listen to them and they will teach you how to reject the superficialities of life.

Read their tombstones. Many died younger than you are today, many have buried their loved ones and some have been tragically distraught by the lost of a child. You can relate to these hardships of life but now, unlike you, in their final resting place, they are free of them. You did not reach your last destination yet and you wonder what lies ahead of you: you can predict that good and bad will come. So, now, at this moment, grab the best of it. Carpe Diem, as they said, in the Roman days.

You feel completely alive; all your senses are stimulated: The gentle breeze caresses your face. You are amazed at the subtle pastels of the sky, at the trills of the birds. The woodpeckers call your attention by knocking incessantly on the trunks. The squirrels run from to tomb to tomb: do they pay a morning visit to their residents? Witnessing all this activity, you realize that you are not in a place of dead people. Life was, is and will be here for a long time.

Now, I want to introduce you to Catherine Ahlquist. She stands tall at the cemetery entrance, always waiting for the visitors. She is a good hostess, and treats all with a smile. She left this earth more than one hundred years ago but her epitaph keeps her alive. She married Hugo and left this earth too early, only at the age of thirty. Hugo missed her so much; their five years of marriage brought him so many joys. In his sorrow, he chose this beautiful statue, a lady with a serene and loving face, dressed in a flowing classic gown. Her slender and straight silhouette bears her pride. She liked to do things right, she thrived to be the perfect hostess, helping her husband in his business. She practiced the Victorian virtues of the time: thrifty but generous, elegant but not outlandish, social but not gossipy. Always busy, idleness could bring waste. Her needlepoint, china painting proved she was an accomplished artist. Being the wife of a young and successful banker she learned quickly how to entertain with class. Hugo was always proud to invite his colleagues to a Sunday dinner. They had a lot in common. Although Hugo was born in Sweden and she was born in Beatrice, Gage County, they had a lot in common. After all, Catherine’s parents also were born in Europe.

Read her epitaph and let your imagination takes over. You will then discover even more about Catherine.

In loving memory of Catherine M. Ahlquist

Nee Elerbeck, wife of Hugo W. Ahlquist.

April 17 1879-December 31 1909.

She made home happy

Within the hearts of those she loved

Rests the memory of her sweet and gentle life.

Did you notice the date of her death? How sad! The neighbors were celebrating the coming of the New Year, Hugo could hear their laughs and the jolly music, and he was sitting at her side, holding her hand, slowly stiffening, slowly turning cold, then becoming smooth but frigid marble. Hugo had tried to hope despite the doctor’s verdict, had prayed for a miracle, but no, it was over... Catherine had left him forever.

Catherine and Hugo’s whole story could seem erased by the years but you have the power to add in the missing puzzle pieces according to your liking. Build a beautiful story, emphasize the pleasant moments they lived together, share their prides and joys. Although life was short for Catherine, we will remember her as it is carved her epitaph: a loving and gentle woman.

Will you deserve such an epitaph? Or do you prefer to have some other accomplishments listed on your tombstone? About me, I would be delighted to leave such a legacy. Who knows? I certainly tried to be nice to all...

by Bernadette Korslund

Homestead Records Digitization Project Update

2011-06-24T09:00:00.000-05:00

http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/homestead-act/

Homestead National Monument of America is excited to announce that the homestead land entry case files digitization project has completed the imaging process for the records from the Omaha land office. There are nearly two million homestead records currently housed in the National Archives. Until now the only way to view these files was to request copies from the National Archives or physically go to Washington D.C. and perform your research. The digitization project will allow public access to these records online.

The Monument and its partners began the painstaking process of digitizing the records of the Lincoln/Nebraska City land office in the summer of 2009. The Lincoln/Nebraska City land office had 12,295 homestead files. All of these files resulted in approximately 300,000 images of homestead paperwork that can be accessed by anyone curious about the lives of homesteaders. The success of that project was encouraging and the partnership moved forward to the Omaha land office. The Omaha land office had 6,350 homestead files which produced approximately 93,000 images. The information in these documents will be an invaluable resource to scholars and genealogists attempting to research this complex period in American history.

The project has moved forward. The digitization of the Alliance, Nebraska land office records has already begun. The Alliance land office has 4,222 homestead files which will produce approximately 76,000 images. Each image is a document contained within the homesteaders file. Documents range from the initial application to the final patented certificate. These documents are all unique in that no homesteader’s story was the same. Through these records we will be able to observe things like social and economic trends along with cultural and ethnic migration patterns. This data will provide many answers, but, and maybe more importantly, it will lead to new questions.

If you are interested in accessing these records you can visit Homestead National Monument of America’s Heritage Center where access to the database is free to the public at designated research terminals. Monument staff is on hand to assist those who have any questions.

Homestead Welcomes New Citizens

2011-06-17T09:00:00.003-05:00

While it is debatable if Betsy Ross stitched the first American flag it is true that The Flag represents the ideal of America and her citizens. Former President Clinton says it best in the 1997 Flag Day Proclamation: "Our nation's flag has always flown in the vanguard of the American journey, reminding us of our proud past and beckoning us into a future full of promise. Its bold colors reflect the courage and exuberance of the American people, and its simple but inspired design symbolizes both the unity and diversity that define our nation."

Homestead National Monument of America paid homage to the sentiment reflected in Governor Clinton’s words when hosting a Naturalization Ceremony June 14; presiding U.S. District Judge Richard Kopf delivered the oath of allegiance and the keynote address, his remarks reflected the feelings of the 1997 proclamation.

References

Regulatory Intelligence Data. (1998, June). History of Flag Day. Retrieved from eLibrary.

Rickers, B. [The Daily Globe, Worthington, Minn.] (2011, June 14 ). Flag Day is today. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. Retrieved from eLibrary.

The legend and truth of Betsy Ross. (2002, June 14). Contemporary Women's Issues Database, 22. Retrieved from eLibrary.

The National Flag Day Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.nationalflagday.com/default.asp

Homestead Celebrates 75th Anniversary during Homestead Days

2011-06-10T09:00:00.033-05:00

Homestead National Monument of America celebrates its 75th Anniversary during Homestead Days, June 17 – 19, 2011. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the act that created the monument in 1936. This year’s theme is Homestead Days 1936. Exciting and unique performances that will take you back to the 1930’s are scheduled for the stage at the Education Center.

On Friday, June 17 at 1 p.m., see clothes from the 1930’s as Sue McClain from Yesterday’s Lady in Beatrice, NE presents a 1930’s Fashion Show. At 2 p.m., Beatrice native and San Francisco State University professor, Dr. Robert Cherny will present a special program, the “Homestead Act and American Politics”. Dr. Cherny will repeat his program at 1 p.m. on Sunday, June 19.

On Saturday, June 18 at 12 p.m., the Homestead Harmonizers kick off the monument’s stage performances with their award winning vintage style of close 4-part harmony. At 1 p.m. and 4 p.m., the Nebraska Czech Band, a 12 piece ensemble from Omaha, NE, will perform. This band is fashioned after the traditional Czech Style brass bands that feature clarinets along with the standard brass and percussion instruments, a style known as dechovka. David Landis will portray Nebraska Senator George Norris on both Saturday and Sunday, June 19 at 2 p.m. His first person portrayal of Senator
Norris, one of the U.S. Senate’s most powerful and influential senators, will focus on his efforts to create Homestead National Monument of America.

Rounding out the monument’s performers on Saturday and Sunday are Nebraska Humanities Council artist David Seay, David Fowler and Carolyn Johnsen. David Seay will present ‘The “Tradition” in Traditional Folk Music’ at 3 p.m. on Saturday and again at 3 p.m. and 12 p.m. on Sunday. His program examines the folk tradition and how it resulted in the passing of music from one generation to next. David Fowler and Carolyn Johnsen will present ‘The History and Romance of the Fiddle: A Prairie Perspective’ at 4 p.m. on Sunday. Fowler and accompanist Johnsen will present various historical and romantic perspectives on the fiddle and its upscale cousin the violin. This event is partially funded by grants from the Nebraska Humanities Council and Nebraska Arts Council.

Performance times:

Friday, June 17
1 p.m. 1930’s Fashion Show presented by Yesterday’s Lady
2 p.m. Homestead Act and American Politics by Dr. Robert
            Cherny, San Francisco State University

Saturday, June 18
12 p.m.     Homestead Harmonizers
1 p.m. & 4 p.m. Nebraska Czech Brass Band
2 p.m. Senator George Norris and the Founding of Homestead National
             Monument by David Landis
3 p.m. The Tradition in Traditional Folk Music by David Seay

Sunday, June 19
12 p.m. The Tradition in Traditional Folk Music by David Seay
1 p.m.   Homestead Act and American Politics by Dr. Robert Cherny, San
             Francisco State University
2 p.m. Senator George Norris and the Founding of Homestead National
             Monument by David Landis
3 p.m. The Tradition in Traditional Folk Music by David Seay
4 p.m. The History and Romance of the Fiddle: A Prairie Perspective
             by David Fowler and Carolyn Johnsen

"We are extremely excited about the variety of presentations. We have several musical acts and presentations relating to items in the 1930’s when Homestead National Monument of America was founded,” said Mark Engler, Superintendent of Homestead National Monument of America.

Homestead Centennial Year

2011-06-03T09:00:00.002-05:00

http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=31

In the coming months Homestead National Monument of America is actively preparing for a very special occasion. The 150^th anniversary of the signing of the Homestead Act of 1862 by Abraham Lincoln will be commemorated throughout the year of 2012! In our efforts to generate ideas for various events, we began to look back to see how the 100^th anniversary was commemorated. I would like to share with you one of those pieces of history that was of particular interest. The 100^th anniversary commemoration efforts actually began on January 5, 1962 in Washington D.C. when President John F. Kennedy proclaimed 1962 to be the “Homestead Centennial Year”. Understanding the importance of the Homestead Act with relation to the development of the United States, President Kennedy issued this proclamation of remembrance.

Proclamation 3444 - Homestead Centennial Year
January 5, 1962

By the President of the United States of America

Whereas May 20, 1962, marks the centennial of the enactment of the Homestead Act (12 Stat. 392), approved by President Lincoln, inducing settlement and cultivation of the undeveloped public lands and the establishment of homes thereon; and

Whereas the granting of patents to more than 270 million acres of public domain lands has promoted the economic, social, and political development of this country through the establishment of farms, ranches, and communities and has provided the foundation for our highly productive agricultural economy; and

Whereas the Homestead Act and supplemental acts of Congress, which are unique and distinctively American, stand as a tribute to the wisdom of those responsible for their enactment, in providing for the settlement of the public lands and thereby contributing to our free enterprise system by offering landless and laboring people an opportunity to acquire lands to provide for the needs of their families; and

Whereas the Homestead Act and supplemental acts provide for the further recognition of those who have served in the armed forces of the United States; and

Whereas specific Federal administration of the lands of the public domain began one hundred and fifty years ago with the establishment on April 25, 1812, of the General Land Office, now the Bureau of Land Management in the Department of the Interior, and the development of the West has been coextensive with, and based substantially upon, the acquisition, use, and disposal of these lands; and

Whereas the Nation's public lands have contributed to the development and maintenance of the land-grant colleges and universities and the transcontinental and other railroads; and constitute the resource from which our national forest and park systems have been created; and

Whereas the approximately 477 million acres of public domain, under the administration of the Department of the Interior, constitute a vital and necessary national land reserve, a trust dedicated to the greatest use and benefit of the public; and

Whereas the Congress, by a joint resolution approved September 22, 1961 (75 Stat. 571), has requested the President to issue a proclamation designating the calendar year 1962 as the centennial of the enactment of the Homestead Act:

Now, Therefore, I, John F. Kennedy, President of the United States of America, do hereby designate the year 1962 as Homestead Centennial Year.

I call upon the Governors of the States, mayors of cities, and other public officials, as well as other persons, organizations, and groups, particularly in the States most directly affected by the Homestead Act, to observe such centennial by appropriate celebrations and ceremonies.

I request the Department of the Interior to plan and participate in appropriate commemorative activities recognizing the centennial of the enactment of the Homestead Act and the sesquicentennial of the establishment of the General Land Office; and I also request the Department of the Interior and other Federal agencies to cooperate fully with State and local governments during 1962 in commemorating these events.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the Seal of the United States of America to be affixed.

Done at the City of Washington this fifth, day of January in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and sixty-two, and of the Independence of the United States of America the one hundred and eighty-sixth.

JOHN F. KENNEDY

Homestead Attitude: Fiddle Fest

2011-05-27T10:15:00.001-05:00

If a fiddle is a violin with attitude then this competition is the perfect way to get the summer started with the right attitude. Homestead National Monument of America hosts an annual fiddling championship every year on Memorial Day weekend, and this year stands to be one of the best!

The competition is geared towards all ability levels and begins with Deborah Greenblatt teaching a free workshop in the morning. She was the first woman to win the Nebraska State Fiddling Championship, the first woman to win the Mid-America Fiddle Championship and is a member of the Mid-America Old-Time Fiddler’s Hall of Fame.

Greenblatt finds the atmosphere at the Monumental Fiddling Championship and Acoustic Band Contest to be inviting and nurturing for all levels of musicians. It is a day for fiddlers of all ages and experience levels to come together much like they did when the first pioneers arrived in the 1800’s and began settling the prairie. The sounds of fiddlers were often heard whenever homesteaders got together and those same sounds will be heard on May 28, 2011, at the eleventh annual Monumental Fiddling Championship and Acoustic Band Contest.

Greenblatt enjoys the jam sessions. “They inspire and entertain each other on stage and play nicely together in the many jam sessions that erupt all over the landscape,” said Greenblatt. Over the years she said that many musicians have told her they were inspired to begin to play because of the performances and jam sessions they observed at the Monumental Fiddling Championships.

The competition is also free and offers fiddlers the chance to be judged in a non-threatening environment. Each participant is given comments by the three judges. Professional musician and high school band director Nathan LeFeber has been a judge several times. “From the great music that is made, to the prizes and trophies, to the free fiddle they give away each year it is no wonder folks are coming from miles around to compete in this contest,” said LeFeber.

Competition helps musicians get better. “Give folks a high standard and then let them work at trying to achieve their best with the hopes they might be in the top three. That is what competition in music is all about,” said LeFeber.

Seventeen-year-old Joe Ferizzi from Dearborn, Missouri, finished second in the adult division in 2010. Ferizzi enjoys the thrill of competing, the chance to meet new people and hear new songs. “If I hear a song I like at competition, I will go home and do my best to learn the song,” said Ferizzi. He also thinks it helps a musician deal with the suspense of being on stage.

His grandpa also played the fiddle and influenced his decision of instrument. “My grandpa played the violin and one day when I was six I was sitting in the kitchen with my parents and they saw an ad for violin or piano lessons. When they asked me if I would rather play the violin or the piano I quickly said violin.”

Not only is Ferizzi an accomplished fiddler he is also an outstanding violinist earning straight ones in each category at state competition last year.

The event also attracts families that enjoy fiddling together. In 2009 Carl Cook from Independence, Missouri, won the Senior Division and his daughter, Cecelia Cook, placed third in the Junior Division.

Following the morning workshop participants will break for lunch and prepare for the competition in the afternoon. It is also free for both participants and spectators. The one rule which makes this competition unique is that all songs must have been written between 1863, when the first homestead was filed, and 1936, when Homestead National Monument of America was established.

The day ends with the announcement of winners and an opportunity at a paid gig for the evening finale. Trophies are given to the top three finishers in the Junior and Senior Division and the Acoustic Band Contest. Leigh F. Coffin, Jane M. Coffin, & Leigh M. Coffin Foundation have been long term supporters and provide the prize money and opportunity for the winners to choose a fiddle.

The winner of a Tune Writing Competition which is held in conjunction with the Nebraska Chapter of the American String Teachers Association is also announced. And the best left-handed fiddler and the youngest fiddler are recognized.

“But win or not there are no losers at this competition,” said LeFeber, “ For young and old, it is a great time!”

1862: An important legislative year

2011-05-20T09:00:00.000-05:00

In 1862 the 37^th Congress was in session, the union had dissolved into a bitter civil war, and the future of the United States was uncertain at best. President Lincoln issued a proclamation in January of that year authorizing “unified aggressive action against the Confederacy.” The number of casualties rose exponentially as battle after bloody battle began to take its toll on both Union and Confederate armies. Chaos had engulfed the nation. Surprisingly, in the midst of such dire circumstances, the 37^th Congress and President Lincoln continued working on legislation for expanding the country westward. Three of the top one hundred documents in the history of the United States were passed and signed in 1862, and they became the framework by which the U.S. would expand its boundaries to the Pacific Ocean.

The first act passed was the Homestead Act. The legislation was passed by Congress and signed by President Lincoln on May 20, 1862. The Homestead Act was signed as Union troops were rushing to Washington D.C. to protect the nation’s capital city from Confederate forces. The Homestead Act provided for 160 acres of public land, most of which was located west of the Missouri River, to individuals willing to build a home and live on it for five years. During those five years you had to “improve” the land. After five years, and meeting the requirements, the government turned over title of the land to the homesteader. The Homestead Act spearheaded a wave of human migration unlike any other in history.

The second act passed was the Pacific Railway Act, signed on July 1, 1862. The provisions in this legislation authorized a transcontinental railroad to run from Council Bluffs, Iowa to Sacramento, California down to Oakland, California. For the first time, the United States had a plan and authorization to connect the East with the West. The railroad was completed seven years later. The railroad drastically reduced the amount of time it took to travel across country. People and commodities could now be transported quickly over long distances, making such ventures as homesteading more economically viable.

The third act in this series was the Morrill Act. The Morrill Act was signed on July 2, 1862 and provided for public lands to be sold by individual states to raise funds to build agricultural and mechanical colleges. The Morrill Act had a twofold effect on the development of the West. First, most of the public lands given to states were in western territories. Each state was given 30,000 acres of public land for each congressional representative. For example, if the state had two senators and one representative, for a total of three, then they would receive 90,000 acres of public land to sell. The state was then to build a public college from the funds they generated from the land transactions. Second, the colleges were to promote the agricultural and mechanical arts. The research and curriculum advanced by these colleges enhanced agricultural and industrial practices.

Each piece of legislation contributed to the westward expansion of the United States in different ways, taken as a whole, they provided the land, education, and transportation to support western development Congress was seeking. In the end, these three pieces of legislation did transform the United States, and as the sesquicentennial of these Acts approaches, many are looking back in an effort to understand the impact that this legislation had on the country. Some speculate that 1862 was the most important legislative year in U.S. history… what do you think?

Homestead's Grassland Birds

2011-05-13T09:00:00.012-05:00

During the 2010 breeding bird survey 61 different species of birds were identified at Homestead National Monument of America. Similar diversity of birds was seen during the 2010 Birds and Bagels events. So why does the National Park Service care about what species of bird are using the monument?

This data when combined with previous year’s data will help to answer many questions. Without monitoring we would not know if the numbers and diversity of birds were increasing or decreasing. It would also make it impossible to assess how our management actions are affecting the birds.

From the 2010 data we know that 10 different species that utilize the monument were identified by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in a publication titled Partners in Flight North American Landbird Conservation Plan, as being of continental importance. Another 10 or so species are grassland bird species.

Homestead is an island of prairie within the sea of agriculture. For many species, especially those that rely on grasslands, Homestead appears to be a refuge. While many habitats, even urban ones will provide a home for orioles, robins, mourning doves, etc. because of habitat requirements grassland bird species (those species that use these grassland habitats during the breeding season for courtship, nesting, foraging, rearing young, and roosting or resting) are unable to adapt to urban and cultivated landscapes. Less than 5% of the prairie that was here when the first Europeans arrived remains in its natural state. This reduction in acreage has led to severe fragmentation of the grassland ecosystem. For that reason grassland birds are the group of birds whose numbers are declining the fastest in the United States, almost half (48%) of the grassland bird species are of conservation concern (http://www.stateofthebirds.org/).

The protection and restoration of grasslands is vital to reversing the downward spiral in the numbers and diversity of grassland bird species. The Friend’s of Homestead are doing their part in helping to reverse the trend. This year will mark the third growing season since 140 acres of cropland was planted with a mixture of over 100 species of tallgrass prairie plants. With native species it has been said that the first year they sleep, the second year they creep and the third year they leap. As the area becomes more dominated by prairie plants it should attract more wildlife including grassland birds. Hopefully future monitoring of the bird population will confirm this.

So the next time you are at the monument take some time and drive around the section, slowly with your window down, so you can hear the calls of the many birds that have already made the southwest quarter of section 26 of the Blakely Township their home and see the prairie plants leaping!

Creation of Homestead National Monument of America

2011-05-06T09:00:00.001-05:00

Homestead National Monument of America recently celebrated its 75th anniversary this past March. This milestone, and the program I gave in recognition of the anniversary, led me to the learn more about the creation of the Monument. So often, we take for granted that things are the way they are because that is the way they are, but that attitude prevents us from appreciating and understanding why things are the way they are. I have been at the Monument for a little of a year now and this was the first time I was able to examine in depth the creation of Homestead National Monument of America.

Many people believe March 19, 1936 was the beginning of the Monument. That was the day President Franklin Roosevelt signed the legislation that officially provided authority to establish a “memorial emblematical of the hardships of pioneer life through which the early settlers passed in the settlement, cultivation and civilization of the Great West." However, prior to Congress passing and the President signing this legislation, efforts had been actively trying to establish a permanent site recognizing the homesteading era.

Early stories claim that Daniel Freeman, who is recognized as the first homesteader ever, promoted the idea as early as the 1880’s to have his homestead recognized as a national site and protected in order to serve as an symbol of the homesteading era. Other accounts claim Dan Freeman was approached by other interests wanting to ensure his site was recognized, but that he declined. While that history is a bit muddled, we do know that in 1909, just weeks after Daniel Freeman’s death, a coalition of citizens in Beatrice, Nebraska began to advocate for recognition of Freeman’s homestead.

The early movement was hindered by the lack of political support at the national level. Nebraska representative Edward H. Hinshaw introduced legislation as early as 1909 seeking the establishment of a park, but these efforts failed at various points in the process. Support within the community of Beatrice remained strong but were often confronted with the reality that national recognition may not come. One advocacy group, the Daughters of the American Revolution, was determined to see the site obtain some type of recognition. The initiated a movement to have a stone statue be placed on Freeman’s homestead. They were successful in their efforts and in 1925 they placed a stone from the old capitol building on the site with a plaque that reads:

This stone from the old state capitol at Lincoln, Nebraska marks the site of the first registered homestead of the United States. Erected by Elizabeth Montague Chapter: Daughters of the American Revolution Beatrice, Nebraska

The DAR Monument, as it has come to be known, is still standing in the tall grass prairie to this day as the first physical memorial to the homesteading era.

Coincidentally, it was 1925 that a U.S. Senator from Nebraska named George Norris became involved with the effort. He advocated for the establishment of a national park at the site of Daniel Freeman’s homestead for nearly ten more years before Homestead National Park Association was formed by prominent leaders in Beatrice, Ne to assist the Senator in his fight. After a renewed local commitment coupled with the political backing of Senator Norris and Representative Henry Luckey, the formal legislation was finally passed by Congress and signed by the President in 1936. But, Congress failed to appropriate any funds to purchase the land designated to be the site of Homestead National Monument of America.

For two years Homestead National Monument of America existed only on paper. It was not until 1938 that the funds were provided to buy the land from the Freeman family. The process was long and at times bleak, but ultimately successful because of the commitment and passion of the local citizenry of Beatrice. When President Roosevelt signed Public Law 480 of the 74th Congress it officially “established” Homestead National Monument of America, but to many the site was already emblematic of the homesteading era that forever changed our country.

by Blake Bell
Homestead Historian

Learning Homestead Style

2011-04-29T09:00:00.004-05:00

Saturday, I picked up my cell phone, pressed 8, then send expecting my little sister to pick up. The 5 year old voice of my niece surprised me at first, but I guess it shouldn’t have because I often get calls from my sister asking me to talk to either my niece or nephew because they won’t give up the other phone and I’m to provide the distraction. I asked Cadence, my niece, what she was doing to which she replied that she was playing a game on mommy’s phone and it rang so she answered it. After a brief conversation about the game and school I got to talk to my sister.

My niece is a digital native, meaning she’s grown up with technology all her life. She can answer the phone, play games and probably take pictures with her mom’s camera phone. My youngest sister is also a digital native so she snaps first day of school pictures with her camera phone, posts them to Facebook and texts them to the family before they even walk through the school doors. Technology is amazing!

Although we don’t use camera phones, Homestead National Monument of America uses technology to spread the homesteading story through its distance learning technology. Homestead uses distance learning or you may know it as video conferencing, to teach free programs to kids from coast to coast, literally. We have connected with schools from California to New York and from Minnesota to Texas and all points in between. We teach the kids about many different aspects of the homesteading story from the American Indian uses to the buffalo to life in a cabin and more.

It’s amazing to talk to kids across Nebraska and the United States. They have such energy and I am always surprised at how much they know and their answers to my questions. But the key to technology (other than having it work), is to tell them how long it would take them to get to Homestead the old fashioned way, on a school bus. This helps them realize how great technology is. Sometimes a school bus ride to Homestead is only a couple hours away, but other times it could take a couple of days. For those schools located far away we may never have had a chance to introduce our park to them. I wonder how many parents have casually asked their child what they did in school today to have them answer, “I went to Nebraska!” I would love to see their faces. I should start asking the kids to take pictures for me.

by Tina Miller
Education Coordinator
Homestead National Monument of America

Homesteader: Oscar Micheaux

2011-04-22T09:00:00.002-05:00

Oscar Micheaux is a well known historical figure in the world of cinema. He was the first African American to produce and direct a feature length film. The title of that film was The Homesteader and it was released in theaters in 1919. Coincidentally, this was the first feature film to have homestead as the primary theme. I initially began to research the film out of curiosity in that it was about the Homestead Act. It quickly became apparent that the man who directed the film, Oscar Micheaux, the driving force behind this production, had based the picture on his own life experiences.

Oscar Micheaux came from humble southern Illinois beginnings. Both his parents were children of slaves and they were trying to navigate what it meant to be African American in the post-Civil War United States. Oscar’s mother believed deeply in education and was committed to affording her children the opportunity to receive formal schooling. It was in these early years that Oscar slowly became aware of what it was like to be black in the late 19th century. He recalls that southern Illinois had a high population of former slave catchers, a profession popular in northern states that bordered the Mason Dixon Line. Oscar, at first, was labeled a trouble maker; “a negro with worldly ideas.” This label often isolated him from his peers, but it motivated him to prove the status quo wrong and rise above what society seemed to have predetermined for him. At this time, Oscar also began to understand the delicate nature of race relations, lessons that would serve him well in the future.

In his teens Oscar moved to Chicago to be with his brother. He began working a laborious job in the infamous stockyards; however, finding this work particularly gruesome, he left the stockyards to open his own shoeshine stand. Here he began to talk with his white patrons, and being an astute student of human behavior, started learning about white society. He began to develop an interest in the untamed West many of his white customers talked about. The fascination led Oscar to a job as a Pullman Porter. The Pullman Porter’s job was to ensure that train travelers were accommodated and that all of their needs were met when they were riding the rails to their destinations. As a Porter, Oscar would spend days getting to know the white travelers that he was assigned to, many of which were heading to the western United States to acquire free land from the government through a program called the Homestead Act.

Oscar’s interest in the West drew him to Gregory County in southern South Dakota. Here Oscar found a piece of ground and, with little farming experience, began the arduous task of plowing the ground. He remembers his (all white) neighbors standing about watching and laughing as his plow “hopped, skipped, and jumped all the way across the prairie.” The ridicule burned like a fuel in Oscar who was determined to overcome his inexperience and prove that he could succeed. Oscar was in his field rain or shine, yielding only to frozen ground, plowing up 120 acres in his first year. His determination soon turned his neighbors laughter to a “grudging respect, then to acceptance, and finally to admiration, when they realized that he had broken many more acres of prairie than most of them.”

This admiration left Oscar feeling tentatively welcome in an area where he was the lone African American. Being the lone African American also isolated him. Knowing the delicate nature of race relations, Oscar new that a romantic relationship with a white woman would not be tolerated, even though Oscar had strong feelings for a local white woman and those feelings appear to have been reciprocated by the woman, Oscar would not cross those boundaries. This was an issue that Oscar would revisit many times in his future films.

Oscar set to the arduous task of improving his claim. He successfully proved up his homestead just as the region entered a severe drought. Oscar was forced to try and make ends meet by hiring himself to other farmers in the region, but other farmers were suffering and work was inconsistent. He began writing down his experiences as a homesteader as a way to cope with the hardships he was enduring. His writings were a mix of fiction and biography meant to tell his story of struggle with, and conquest of, the land. He soon had created a full length book that he appropriately titled The Conquest. He began traveling throughout the region selling the book to his friends and neighbors. This new enterprise soon led to a second novel titled The Homesteader. His self published novels were moderately successful, but more importantly they caught the attention of a production company that wanted to turn them into a movie.

Oscar attended a meeting in Lincoln, Nebraska to listen to the production company’s offer to make the movie. He was extremely interested in the idea and said that he would allow the company to make the movie, but he wanted to direct the film. The production company refused and pulled out of the deal, but the seed had been planted in Oscar’s mind and he became determined to self-produce and direct the film, and that is exactly what he did. In doing so, Oscar Micheaux became the first African American to produce and direct a feature length film, and he called it The Homesteader. Unfortunately, there are no surviving copies of the film The Homesteader, which is a great lost to both the world of history and cinema.

The African American homesteading experience is still, in large part, lacking in that scholarship, outside of the Kansas Exodusters, but it has been sporadic at best. Oscar Micheaux’s novels offer an invaluable glimpse into the African American experience in early 20th century South Dakota, but it also stands as a reminder to how little information exists on African American homesteaders.

The land of homestead dreams…

2011-04-15T09:00:00.003-05:00

The land to be discovered by an accident, the land to be settled by strangers, the land to be given for people…

By Parviz Jamalov, foreign exchange student from Tajikistan

Southeast Community College

Once knowing nothing about Nebraska, I have inherited the passion of “Go Big Red” fever and fell in love with hospitability shown by the people of the “Cornhusker State.” But while living in Nebraska I was always wondering about the pride which overflows the spirits of Nebraska people. What is the Homestead Act? How did the people of different ancestries come upon the decision to live in Nebraska? Where are Native Americans?

Parviz Jamalov at the wall of states

These are just some of the many questions which were constantly crossing my mind. As a foreign exchange student who had never before experienced the American culture and traditions firsthand, I considered the Homestead Act as an essential tool for broadening my horizons about American history and culture.

And finally, when the snowy days were marching through Beatrice the splendid chance of learning more about Nebraska was given to me. Seems like even severe and almighty weather showed mercy to me that day as the tender rays of sun were charmingly reflecting from snow which covered the ground like a big white fluffy blanket. While sitting in the car on my way to the Homestead National Monument I felt how my knees were quaking because of accumulating excitement and anticipation.

The Education Center was our first destination. Although much time has passed since that day there is one scene which still stays in my mind. Remember The Fallen wall left a huge emotional impact in my heart. The pictures of young soldiers whose lives were cut too early evoked sadness in my soul. But I believe that glory and honor they deserved will elevate their names to eternity.

After visiting the Education Center, we headed to the Heritage Center. Truly, I was conquered by it from first sight. The unique shape of the building captured my attention and I couldn’t wait to get inside. Now I was there, in the place of knowledge, history and heritage.

First of all we watched the movie about the Homestead Act. I was told that this movie is triumphant and seized an Award. And as I proceeded watching it, I was convinced in the genuine high quality of this movie. Not only did it become a perfect study tool for me but also it gave a real vigorous picture of the American history. Accompanied by tremendous visual and sound effects the movie maintains a dramatic and intense atmosphere though it solely reflects true historical events. Now the history of the Homestead Act was clear for me.

But how did the first homesteaders live? What farming techniques did they use while conquering severe nature? Answers for these and many other questions were revealed in the Museum of the Heritage Center.

First of all, I could read the actual Homestead Act signed by Abraham Lincoln. Then the history began to show its detail as I was watching many tools, constructions, and inventions which were used by the Homesteaders. Admirably, many of them staggered my mind and persuaded me that human abilities are truly unlimited.

The most exciting part of the exhibition was the reconstruction of the actual homestead house[Palmer-Epard Cabin]. When I stepped inside it I thought I felt the smell of history because the interior appearance of the house was just like the ones which I saw in the movie or on the pictures. For a moment I believed that I was in the past. The house looked so humble and orderly that I thought that its residents have just left and will be back soon.

Another remarkable recollection which dwells in my mind was the sample of school tools used by the students of homestead days and nowadays students. It was a splendid comparison of two different centuries that gave me another chance to understand the lifestyle of the Homesteaders. Unfortunately due to weather conditions I couldn’t walk to the actual Homestead land, however, I sincerely hope to visit the Homestead National Monument of America again during the spring.

So what did the visit to the Homestead Monument give me? What did I learn when I spent some time there? The answer is obvious – I was astounded by the People of America again. Once being nothing but the land of wind and sand, today the area which was given to homesteaders thrives providing food and water for a whole nation. Whereas in my county where 67% of the population is involved in agriculture, the abundant fertile land was passed to us by our predecessors, who had been resiliently working for many centuries. The agriculture and farming came to Central Asia in during the Stone Age and had been gradually developing raising the exuberance and bountifulness of arable lands. Those lands were feeding the various empires including Macedonian, Mongolian, Turk and Russian ones.

But the land which was accidentally discovered by Christopher Columbus was pristine and untouched and saw nothing but periodical movements of Indian tribes. This land became the promise of paradise for thousands of people from different continents who were in desperate search for better life. Forced by economic instability and dreadful wars, the people came to the New World placing their lives for the sake of hope. Once they got official permission, the homesteaders faced the greatest challenge – the challenge of survival. The land which seemed a dream before greeted them with a harsh severity. Tornadoes, storms, famine and hordes of grasshoppers couldn’t break the soul of the people who persistently fought for the bright future. And today this land has become the most powerful and prosperous in the world.

It was the land of dream…The dream which became reality…The dream which elevated the nation…The dream which is called America.

A Day in the Life of a Ranger

2011-04-08T09:00:00.002-05:00

Visitors often ask me about my work experiences as a park ranger, what other parks I have worked at, or how I became a park ranger when they visit the monument or when I visit a classroom. I have had quite an exciting career as a park ranger so far, having worked at five other National Park Service sites besides Homestead, doing things like narrating day-long boat tours to tidewater glaciers at Kenai Fjords National Park, leading canoe trips in the mangroves of Everglades National Park, and presenting campfire programs about the recovery of the peregrine falcon at Shenandoah National Park.

by Allison La Duke

There’s something unique and special, though, about my job at Homestead National Monument of America. For one, I get to wear many different “hats”, not just a park ranger hat, but also a Artist-in-Residence program coordinator hat, a Webmaster hat, a special events planner hat, a living history bonnet , and others. Secondly, in the two years I have worked at Homestead, I have had the great opportunity to recognize and get to know our regular visitors and dedicated volunteers. By working at one National Park Service site for more than a season, I have become part of the community and learned the faces and names of the people who know this land very well.

Most importantly, there’s something so rewarding about having a good conversation with a visitor who is genuinely interested in the impact the Homestead Act had on our country and the world. Yesterday I had such a conversation with a visitor. When he first arrived, he joked with me about how to get the donation box open so he could take the money home with him. But then he asked me a more serious question about the significance of this place, why are we here. Our conversation was one that went beyond the typical questions of “where’s the bathroom?” and “what should we do here?” Instead, we talked about Abraham Lincoln and his legacy; we talked about the beauty of the prairie; we talked about how the Homestead Act changed people’s lives in big ways. For some people this was a fresh start for a new life, but for the American Indians, it was a devastating, and many people don’t even realize that it occurred. I could tell he was engaged and interested in our conversation because he stopped to think while we were talking and would say, wow, I hadn’t thought about it that way before.

At the end of his visit, he thanked me for what we do here, for our conversation and for the insight I provided. I also thanked him, because those conversations aren’t very common. This type of conversation is what reminds me of why I wanted to become a park ranger. Thank you yesterday’s visitor from Colorado. You made my day.

Confirmed: Who Pooped in the Park!

2011-04-01T09:00:00.003-05:00

Mammals unlike birds are usually very secretive and hard to see when visiting Homestead National Monument of America. Often we see the signs of the animals that are here, burrows dug by ground hogs, trees chewed on by beavers, tracks from raccoons and deer by the creek, but rarely do we see these animals, let alone get pictures of them. That is why I was very excited when Homestead was given the opportunity to borrow a trail camera from the Regional NPS Wildlife Specialist. The camera is motion activated and takes 10 pictures, in less than 10 seconds each time it sees movement.

By Jesse Bolli, Resource Management Specialist

The first month that we had the camera we had it “watching” the carcasses of deer that the maintenance employees had removed from the highway. In that location we were able to observe several animals feeding on the carcass and a few that were just passing by. Species observed included: red-tailed hawks, crows, raccoons, an opossum, coyotes, deer, wild turkeys, and a bobcat. The camera was then moved closer to the Education Center down by the campfire area. While the camera was there I did not get any photos where the animal could be identified. Several photos of an animal climbing over the camera were captured. With the camera in its current location which is near Cub Creek along a game trail several smaller mammals have been captured. Species captured at its current location include: raccoons, opossums, a skunk, deer, a cottontail rabbit, a squirrel, and a small rodent (mouse, shrew, or vole).

Some of the interesting things that have been observed by the camera include red-tailed hawks who are disagreeing on who should be allowed to feed on the carcass, images where more than one species can be seen, photos with a coyote and deer in the same frame, and another with coyote and turkeys in the same frame. The coyote did not seem interested in the turkeys and the turkeys did not seem concerned.

Another thing that has surprised me is the amount of time that the coyotes and raccoons will spend feeding on the carcass. One coyote spent from 9:56 a.m. to 11:35 a.m. feeding on the carcass. One thousand-three hundred-forty pictures were taken while the coyote was feeding. The coyote did appear to have mange as it did not have any hair on it tail. Still I found it interesting that a coyote would spend over an hour feeding in the daylight in one place.

For me the most exciting species captured by the camera is the bobcat. The series of photos of the bobcat shows it near the ribcage of the deer that it is feeding on, it then is gone in the next frame followed by a shot of the bobcat walking away 30 minutes later. Was the bobcat in the carcass for 30 minutes? The pictures don’t tell the entire story but they do make you wonder what it was doing.

As new images of different species are capture they will be added to our Facebook page. This technology has provided Homestead with valuable information about the mammals that are using the monument and has confirmed for us, as an earlier blog mentions, who pooped in the park!

Homesteader Freeman Thanks Congressman Grow

2011-03-25T09:00:00.003-05:00

Names such as George Washington and Neil Armstrong are engraved in American history as being the first people to take a step to help the U.S. advance in different ways, but one man is often forgotten and that man is Daniel Freeman, the first Homesteader. Imagine a country where less than half of its land is actually used by the people, Daniel Freeman was the first to take that step to bringing the American life to the unused land to the west. After taking the leap to not only homestead, but being the first to homestead without anyone to follow, Freeman should be commemorated as a great pioneer. Once you hear about Freeman’s background, his homesteading experience, and his gratitude towards the Homestead Act maybe you can understand his importance.

By Brandon Clark

Southeast Community College

Daniel Freeman was a Union Soldier with no farming experience prior to applying for the Homestead Act. Freeman dove into this opportunity like a 15 year old starting up a car with no driving experience. There are no records that stated that Freeman farmed any land before becoming a homesteader. Homesteading without any farming experience sounds like a major obstacle, one that Freeman was able to overcome. However there are records to support the claim that he was a soldier. Going from a soldier, someone who has a squad to rely on, to a farmer, a man that has to work his land with no back up, that is a major change for anyone, but freeman was able to make that change.

The work that Daniel Freeman had to put in to not only meet the requirements of the Homestead Act, but to transfer from a soldier to an inexperienced farmer and still succeed must have been tremendous.

Freeman had an agenda, a future much different than that of a soldier. Much like a teenager waiting in line to get tickets to a midnight premiere movie, Freeman wanted his ticket to be a Homesteader. The Homestead Act represented the American dream, and Freeman wanted a piece of it. Chasing the Dream, a 2011 online article by Amy Leinbach, said “(Freeman) convinced a clerk to open the General Land Office shortly after midnight to file his claim (for the Homestead Act).”

After filing his claim at the midnight the Homestead Act took effect, Freeman became the first to apply and later to succeed in homesteading his land. Even though homesteaders were to cultivate the land for five years, union soldiers, like Freeman, only required three years to acquire the land. This did give Freeman a slight advantage so he could legally own his land sooner, but he continued to live on that land till he died in 1908. After living on that land and obtaining the American Dream, Freeman’s appreciation for the man that gave him the opportunity couldn’t be ignored.

After becoming the first Homesteader, Daniel Freeman credited the Homestead Act as his source of happiness. Much like anyone would, Freeman wanted to show his gratitude to Galusha Grow, the writer of the Homestead Act. According to a 2011 interview with the historian at Homestead National Monument, Blake Bell, Daniel Freeman carved a cane from one of his trees and sent it to Galusha Grow as a token of appreciation. Freeman also donated his land to build the Freeman School House. Even though he had to work for three years to legally acquire his land, he was humble enough to donate his land to build a school house.

Daniel Freeman was an important pioneer in the expansion of our country. After severing in the Union army, Freeman became the first to apply to become a homesteader and showed his gratitude to the people that gave him the opportunity. We commemorate so many famous pioneers in American history, but Daniel Freeman should be honored as the common man’s pioneer.

References

B. Bell (interview Feburary 14, 2011).
Leinbach, A. (2011, January 1). Chasing the dream. Retrieved from elibrary.

Life in a Tepee

2011-03-18T09:00:00.033-05:00

Upton Sinclair included John Howard Payne’s famous poem Home, Sweet Home in his article titled American Poetry written in 2006. In his poem he wrote, “Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam, Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.

By Brianna Weichel
Southeast Community College

When most people think of home today, they picture a happy family standing on the doorstep of their house and smiling. This was the same picture for the Plains Indians, only instead of standing in front of a house; they were happily standing in front of their portable tepee.

Today, I will be able to share with you the significance of a tepee to the Indian. I want to explain how a tepee was made and why it was important to the Plains Indians. I also want to talk about the specific roles of the men and women in a tribe, along with their sons and daughters.

The tepee was home for the Plains Indians, so it needed to be durable and reliable. This means that the tepee needed to be able to withstand the same kind of weather we experience in Nebraska today, including wind, rain, and snow.

A tepee can be better described as a cone-shaped tent because the poles that form the frame form the shape of a cone. To hide the poles and create a living area, 8 to 20 buffalo hides were stitched together, depending on the extent of the tepee. Each one generally allowed enough room for 5 to 7 people to sleep comfortably (Giannetta, 2009). This was important because most tepees held a family of two to three generations (Pauls, 2011).

The women were in charge of putting together and taking down the tepee. Surprisingly, it only took them a few minutes to pack it up, and they simply attached it to the back of a horse for easy transportation. While attached to the horse, a couple of the poles dragged on the ground, creating an A-shaped structure. The family would set their belongings and hides on top of this frame, which also helped allow for an easy transportation. It took them roughly an hour or so to set it back up again (Giannetta, 2009).

According to the magazine article Recreating the World: Tipi Ornaments by Cheyenne and Arapaho Women, which was written by Adrianne Santina in 2004, “Tipis were pitched in relation to the cardinal directions, with the door facing the east and the back in the west. These constants result in basic, shared meanings of tipis.” The entrance consisted of a flap. If someone wanted to visit a family, the side of the tepee or the door flap could be scratched or rubbed to alert someone inside the tepee that someone was there (Pauls, 2011). This would be much like knocking or ringing the doorbell like it is for us today.

The quick set up of the tepee was very important. When a village moved, they needed as much time as possible to unpack, hunt, and prepare food for the next meal. Next, I will explain how the functional use of the tepee was also critical to the Plains Indians.

Since the use and space was limited, it was vital for each family to make room for the essentials. Rather than having separate spaces for each room like we do today, the tepee consisted of one large space. The only furniture was the beds assembled around the walls, which were prepared from the skins of a bison. Bison and deer skin lined the tepee during the cold months to contain the heat (Giannetta, 2009).

A par fleche, which was defined in the work Plains Indians, written by J. Giannetta in 2009, as “a folded bag used to carry things, made from the hide of an animal,” and each was hung from the poles and held items such as food, clothes, and tools.

Each tepee included a fire pit (Giannetta, 2009). This fire pit was usually centered in the middle of the tepee. It allowed for both heat and light to enter the inside. A smoke hole was placed at the very top of the tepee, which could be closed if bad weather occurred; if the weather was particularly warm, the sides could roll up for extra ventilation (Pauls, 2011).

The outside of the tepee was just as important to the Plains Indians as the inside. The hides used to cover the outside of the tepee were waterproof. To accomplish this, the hide was smoked above a fire (Giannetta, 2009). Objects of importance, such as animals or stars, were painted on the waterproof hides. Many times, war experiences of the oldest male living in the tepee would also be painted on the outside. Each painting on the outside held a special meaning to the tepee owner (Santina, 2004).

Also, rocks surrounded the bottom, ensuring the tepee could not be tipped over during a strong wind. During the winter, the Indians would pile up snow around the outer edges of the tepee to also prevent it from tipping over (Giannetta, 2009).

We have seen why the tepee was so important to the Plains Indians, but now I will discuss the many key roles of the men and women in a tribe. According to an article in the Britannica Encyclopedia entitled Plains Indian, which was written by Elizabeth Pauls in 2011, “Plains tribes typically had a distinct division of labor” which is “the separation of a work process into a number of tasks."

The men and boys of the tribe had important roles. Their roles are equivalent to jobs today. Rather than going to work to earn money for food and essentials, the Plains Indian male would go out on the plains to find the essentials. The men’s main responsibility was to protect their family and tribe from danger and was obligated to fight in battles if necessary (Giannetta, 2009). They also provided food for the tribe by hunting.

The main meat they hunted was bison, or buffalo meat (Pauls, 2011). They also hunted antelope, deer, elk, and moose, along with smaller game such as birds, prairie chickens, rabbits, and gophers using snare traps, which means they set up a trap to catch the animals, rather than using bow and arrows. In addition, the men created tools, shields, and weapons (Giannetta, 2009).

Young boys learned the previous skills mentioned from their fathers, since it was important that they were prepared for their role as an adult when the time came (Giannetta, 2009). These young boys were given bow and arrows that were light and could not cause any harm, but when the boys became stronger, bigger bows were given to them so they could hunt small game (Pauls, 2011). They typically went on their first real hunt when they were 12 years old (Giannetta, 2009).

Wrestling games were popular in order to prepare the boys for battle. The boys were rewarded when they behaved in the expected ways. Sometimes a boy would be given land from his father when he shot his first deer, came back from his first war experience, took his first steps, or returned to the village with his first small game (Pauls, 2011).

Furthermore, each young man went on a Vision Quest, which was when they left the village for days without any food or water and stayed in a quiet spot until a dream or vision came to them. The Indians believed that this Vision Quest turned each boy into tough fighters and good hunters (Giannetta, 2009).

Along with all of these, the boys, and also the girls, learned about the special ceremonies that were conducted in the village. For fun, both the boys and girls would swim, have horse races, have foot races, and play games of chance (Giannetta, 2009).
The women and girls of the tribe also had duties that were important for survival. The roles of the women and girls can be compared to the jobs of housewives and nannies today. The women gathered wood for the fire, cooked every meal, which usually included meat, and picked berries and plants used in food and medicine (Giannetta, 2009).

Some examples of the berries they would gather include chokecherries, blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries, which were eaten both fresh and dried. These berries were also used for dyes and in jewelry. Some of the plants that the women gathered that grew wild include wild rice, bitter root, and onions, all of which were added to create more flavors to the meat. They also used dried sage for flavoring and moss for tea (Giannetta, 2009).

They also made all of the clothes and necessary articles, such as bags and moccasins, which can be compared to shoes (Giannetta, 2009). Other articles of clothing included leggings, belts, hats, and dresses (Pauls, 2011). The women made the moccasins, or shoes, out of moose hide if a soft sole was desired, or they made them from buffalo hide when a hard sole was wanted (Pauls, 2011). During the winter, fur and grass would be added to the inside to provide extra warmth (Giannetta, 2009).

The leggings were created using buckskin and kept the legs warm and also protected them. The belts were constructed using strips of hide and held small pouches and knives. The hats were usually fur and were used to protect the Indians from the harsh sun and cold (Pauls, 2011). They furthered their duties by quilting and doing beadwork and were in charge of watching the children (Giannetta, 2009).

These duties, cooking, gathering, and sewing, were learned by young girls from their mother. They learned to decorate their clothing with porcupine quill, fringe, embroidery, and beads. The more a dress was decorated, the higher the men were honored in her family for hunting and protecting (Pauls, 2011).

They also learned the duties of being a mother and wife by receiving a doll, which they would play with and take care of. This was a good way for them to practice sewing by creating clothes for the doll and also learning to manage a household using a miniature tepee (Pauls, 2011).

The girls, along with the young boys, learned many stories and legends from the elders of the village. It was their grandparents who took care of them when the parents were out completing every day duties (Giannetta, 2009). The girls also had a reward system. They were praised when they showed tremendous efforts in cooking, sewing, beading, and processing the hides (Pauls, 2011). As we have discussed, the role of the men and women of a tribe were equally important for survival.

Today, I was able to lead you through the life of a Plains Indian, along with the value of a tepee. First, we learned how a Plains Indian tepee was constructed. Then, we discussed the importance of the tepee. Last, we explained the roles and duties of men and women in a tribe. John Howard Payne’s Home, Sweet Home poem continues with, “No more from that, cottage again will I roam; Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home” (Upton, 2006). Now you can see why the Plains Indians called the tepee home.

References:

Giannetta, J. (2009, April). Saskatchewan history – the first peoples: the Plains Indians. Retrieved from http://www.saskschools.ca/~gregory/firstnations/tipi.html

Pauls, E.P. (2011). Plains Indian. Encyclopedia Britannica.
Santina, A. (2004). Recreating the world: tipi ornaments by Cheyenne and Arapaho women. Women’s Studies, (0049-7878 print). Retrieved from Ebsco.

Sinclair, Upton. (2006, March 1). Home, sweet home. American poetry, 48-48. Retrieved from the Literary Reference Center.

Teepee photos: First two can be seen at Mahoney State Park, NE. Last three designed, built, and photographed by the author to author to illustrate her presentation.

Why Weren’t There Any Homestead Lands in Texas?

2011-03-11T09:00:00.004-06:00

When you travel up the walkway leading to the Heritage Center at Homestead National Monument of America you see a visual representation of the percentage of land acquired by private individuals under the Homestead Act of 1862 in each of the 30 states where it applied. But why just 30 states? Why not all 50?

The simple answer is the Government of the United States of America could not sell or “give away” land it didn’t own or control. And in 20 states the National Government did not control the unclaimed lands. Those 20 states were the original thirteen plus five [Kentucky, Tennessee, Vermont, Maine, and West Virginia] carved out of land claimed by original thirteen.

That leaves two states: Texas and Hawaii that were annexed to the United States. When Texas was annexed by the United States in July 1845, the Ordinance of Annexation specifically stated that Texas would retain the rights to all vacant and un-appropriated land within its borders. Texas became a state just five months later, on December 29, 1845. The provisions of the Ordinance of Annexation remained in effect upon the achievement of statehood. The Hawaii annexation agreement had a similar provision.

However, there were homesteaders in Texas, only they acquired their land under the provisions of a state law, not the U. S. Homestead Act of 1862. In 1845 the State of Texas passed a Pre-Emption Law similar to the U.S. Pre-Emption Act of 1841.

In the Texas law a settler could claim up to 320 acres of land by living on it for 3 years, making improvements, and then paying $2.00 per acre for the land. In 1853 the law was changed so that all the settler had to pay was a $12.00 filing fee.

In 1854 the law was changed to reduce the amount of land that could be claimed “for free” to 160 acres. In 1856 the law was repealed, then passed again in 1866, amended in 1870 and 1876 and finally repealed in 1898.

The amount of land disposed to Texas homesteaders is impossible to determine because the Land Office of Texas did not distinguish between those who acquired the land under the pre-emption and homestead laws of Texas. The amount distributed under the two laws is recorded at 4,847,136 acres.

Sources:
Thomas L. Miller, The Public Lands of Texas, 1519–1970 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).

Texas State Historical Association. Handbook of Texas Online. “Land Grants.” http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mpl01

Homestead's Artist-in-Residence: The Homestead Series

2011-03-04T09:00:00.011-06:00

"The Homestead Series"

by Judy Thompson

2010 Artist in Residence
Artist website: http://judythompson.mosaicglobe.com/

A Good Days Work. Wind, hail, grasshoppers and fire could all destroy a year’s work for a homesteader. Field work had its rewards when a bountiful harvest arrived safely. In “A Good Days Work” wheat is being stacked on the Nebraska plains.

Plain Women addresses the courage, resourcefulness and determination of the women who championed the settlement of the American West. Leaving homes and hoping for a better future, these women shared in the dreams and struggles of their husbands. These brave pioneers faced the hardships of inadequate housing, food shortages, prairie fires and isolation.

Working Trio. In order to “prove up,” countless miles were traveled back and forth across the land, turning the prairie landscape into farmland. This vast transformation could not be accomplished without the help of a faithful, dependable team of horses, oxen or mules. A mutual relationship of respect developed between homesteaders and their working teams of animals. Both knew that their survival depended upon each other.

Taking Root. The first priority to creating a homestead was to make a shelter. With no trees in sight, sod bricks were the best option. “Sod busting” was extremely difficult due to the tangle of deeply rooted grasses which comprised the prairie floor. Despite their crude appearance, a sod house remained cool in the summer, warm in the winter and offered better protection from wind and prairie fires than its wooden counterpart.

Sunday Drive. Owning land brought the hope of security, wealth and permanence. What greater satisfaction could a homesteader have, than to survey his 160 acres of land, purchased for $1.25 per acre with the additional investment of 5 years of backbreaking labor!

Editor's Note: Judy was an Artist in Residence in August of 2010. This blog is a continuation of her exploration of the Homestead Act and the Great Plains.

As Judy explained in her earlier blog, "Through my watercolor landscapes, I attempt to capture not merely a likeness of my subject, but also a “sense of place.” The Artist-in-Residence Program provided me with the unique opportunity to explore the history of the homesteaders while being immersed in the native tallgrass prairie. My goal was to create a series of watercolor paintings depicting the prairies during the time of the first homesteaders. My time at the monument included researching existing photos and records, as well as taking my own photos, and creating onsite sketches of the park environment. These references were used to create compelling compositions of the homestead era."

The Rural Electrification Act Provides a 'Fair Chance' to Rural Americans

2011-02-25T09:00:00.000-06:00

Think about how reliant you are on electricity. There was a time where not all Americans had equal access to electricity.

by Gene Finke

In the 1930’s U. S. Senator George Norris of Nebraska was concerned that the descendents of homesteaders and other people living in rural America did not have access to electricity. Norris lamented that in rural America the men and women were “growing old prematurely; dying before their time; conscious of the great gap between their lives and the lives of those whom the accident of birth or choice placed in towns and cities.”

On May 20, 1936, Congress passed the Rural Electrification Act which was one of the most important pieces of legislation passed as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. This law allowed the federal government to make low-cost loans to farmers who had banded together to create non-profit cooperatives for the purpose of bringing electricity to rural America. Seventy-four years earlier to the day on May 20, 1862 President Abraham Lincoln signed the Homestead Act which offered free land for those willing to move to it and cultivate it.

Both of these Congressional Acts were created for the same purpose. President Abraham Lincoln when speaking to a Special Session of Congress on July 4, 1861 best explained that purpose when he said it was the purpose of our government “to elevate the condition of men—to lift artificial weights from all shoulders—to clear the paths of laudable pursuit for all—to afford all, an unfettered start, and a fair chance, in the race of life.”

The Homestead Act is one of the greatest examples of the U. S. government trying “to elevate the condition of men—to lift artificial weights from all shoulders—to give everyone a fair chance in the race of life.”

Norris and other senators and congressmen believed that access to electricity would revolutionize the rural way of life. Therefore, in 1936 Congress passed the Rural Electrification Act to give rural Americans a ‘fair chance.’

For more information go to History of Public Power in Nebraska

[Previously published in Nov. 2007, Mr. Finke has updated this article for Homestead Congress readers.]

From “the Great American Desert” to the “American Breadbasket”

2011-02-18T09:00:00.001-06:00

In 1806 Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, exploring at the direction of President Thomas Jefferson labeled the Great Plains of the United States as the “Great American Desert.” In 1820 Major Stephen Long on another expedition seconded this opinion when he reported “it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture for their subsistence.” Such was the belief most Americans held about the Great Plains well into the 19th century.

For people of a European background, the terms "desert" or “barrens” were often used to describe treeless lands whether they were arid or not. It was long thought that treeless lands were not good for agriculture; thus the term "desert" also had the connotation of "unfit for farming."

The exact location of this “Great American Desert” was not clear, Carey and Lee's Atlas of 1827 located the Great American Desert as an indefinite territory in what is now Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas. Others thought the desert included an area 500 miles wide lying directly east of the Rocky Mountains and extending from the northern boundary of the United States to the Rio Grande River. Generally, in the first half of the 19th century most people thought the land between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains was a desert.

Zebulon Pike’s influence was large, after his 1806 expedition he wrote "From these immense prairies may arise one great advantage to the United States, that is: The restriction of our population to some certain limits, and thereby a continuation of the Union. Our citizens being so prone to rambling and extending themselves on the frontier will through necessity be constrained to limit their extent to the west to the borders of the Missouri and Mississippi, while they leave the prairies incapable of cultivation to the wandering and uncivilized aborigines of the country."

This idea that the area west of the states of Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa was unfit for citizens of the U.S. was so prevalent that it led to the establishment of an “Indian Territory” where Indians from east of the Mississippi River would be moved as a result of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Dozens of tribes were moved and promised lands they could keep “forever” in what are now the state of Nebraska and Kansas. The Indian tribes already residing in those areas were not happy to have new neighbors. “Forever” proved to be only 20 to 40 years as most of these Eastern tribes and many of the “Plains Tribes” were moved again to a reduced in size “Indian Territory” [the present state of Oklahoma]. This happened because the Americans finally realized the Great Plains could be productive land for agriculture.

And what a great agricultural area it has become. The eastern area of the “Great American Desert” normally has more than enough rainfall to produce abundant corn and other grain and agricultural products. And the western area of the “Great American Desert” blossomed in the 1940s, when mechanized pumping was introduced and people began to tap the great water reservoir of the Ogallala Aquifer [sometimes called the High Plains Aquifer] that lies under the area. The formerly dry land flourished under abundant irrigation water from below ground. More and more wells were drilled and pumping capacity dramatically increased. Center-pivot irrigation was introduced, which resulted in huge, lush green circles of agricultural crops on the dry brownish landscape. Large-scale, mechanized pumping of groundwater transformed the agricultural productivity, the society and culture, and the economy throughout the area of the Aquifer.

Today, the Great Plains once known as the Great American Desert along with the Corn Belt that begins east of the Great Plains and extends out onto them from America’s primary grain belt region and are the breadbasket to America and much of the grain-hungry world.

Sources:

Andrist, Ralph K. 1964. The Long Death. New York: The MacMillan Company.

Carlson, Paul H. 1998. The Plains Indians. College Station, Texas: Texas A & M University Press.

Foreman, Grant. 1972. Indian Removal. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.

Foreman, Grant. 1934. The Five Civilized Tribes. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.

Nordin, Dennis S. & Scott, Roy V. 2005. From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press.

Ridder, Mary. 2007. Root of Change: Nebraska’s New Agriculture. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

Webb, Walter Prescott. 1931. The Great Plains. New York: The MacMillan Company.

Wishart, David J., Editor. 2004. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

Brownville-Fort Kearney Trail goes through Homestead

2011-02-11T09:00:00.005-06:00

The Colorado Gold Rush of 1859 lead Brownville, Nebraska merchants to begin shipping goods to Denver and Central City areas of Colorado. They had much competition from merchants in the Nebraska towns of Omaha, Plattsmouth, Nebraska City, Peru, and St. Deroin and the Kansas and Missouri towns of St. Joseph, Atchison, Leavenworth, Independence, and Westport. The Brownville merchants established a “feeder trail” that ran from Brownville to Tecumseh to Beatrice before joining the main line of the Oregon Trail near the crossing of Big Sandy Creek in what is now Jefferson County, Nebraska. This feeder trail became known as the Brownville-Fort Kearney Trail.

by Gene Finke

In some sources, the Brownville-Fort Kearney Trail is referred to as a “military road.” If that is true it means some of the Brownville Merchants were contracted to supply Fort Kearney, Fort Laramie, and other military facilities. It also means the U. S. Army probably sent out a group of infantrymen to make improvements along the Trail. These improvements may have involved lessening some grades, but primarily would have been improving stream crossings. The largest crossings would have been at the Little Nemaha, Big Nemaha, and Big Blue Rivers; these streams usually had large wild spring floods so building bridges over them would have been an exercise in futility. But the Army may have built some bridges on the lesser streams. At the very least they made the banks less steep so the large freight wagons pulled by many yoke of oxen could cross the streams easier. At least once, and probably more than once, the Brownville Merchants financed improvements along the Trail. It is also possible that the merchants of Tecumseh and Beatrice made improvements at the stream crossings in their areas.

Hugh Jackson Dobbs writes in the History of Gage County that the Trail crossed the Big Blue River at the Market Street ford in Beatrice, swung northward along the river, and then traveled northwesterly crossing Cub Creek before starting its route along a high prairie ridge for 22 miles before crossing Little Sandy Creek and joining the main line of the Oregon Trail at the crossing of Big Sandy Creek.

Today, beginning at the Highway 4 curve on the northwest edge of Beatrice you can drive almost the exact route the Trail took from that point to another point just short of the junction of Highways 4 and 15 nine miles west of Plymouth, Nebraska. The one exception would be through Homestead National Monument of America. There the Trail crossed through the center of Daniel Freeman’s property and not around the north edge like today. This wayside on the walking trail just west of the Heritage Center at Homestead shows where the Trail went and gives an explanation of the activity on the Trail.

Sources:

Dobbs, Hugh Jackson. 1918. The History of Gage County. Lincoln, Nebraska: Western Publishing and Engraving Company.

Lass, William E. 1972. From the Missouri to the Great Salt Lake: An Account of Overland Freighting. Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska State Historical Society.

Mattes, Merrill J. 1969. The Great Platte River Road. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

Lavender, David Sievert. The Overland Migrations: Settlers to Oregon, California, and Utah. Washington D.C.: National Park Service, The Department of Interior.

Homestead's Artist in Residence: Mel Mann talks about the process (Part 2)

2011-02-04T09:00:00.000-06:00

Mel Mann talks about the application process for

Artist in Residence program at

Homestead National Monument of America (Part 2)

Homestead National Monument was created by an act of Congress in 1936 “…as an appropriate monument to retain for posterity a proper memorial emblematical of the hardships and the pioneer life through which the early settlers passed in the settlement, cultivation and civilization of the Great West.” Although part of the National Park System, Homestead is not a grand landscape but rather a historical site. Comprising the 160 acre homestead proved up by Daniel Freeman (one of the first in the nation), the Monument works to teach visitors about the Homestead Act, the people who took advantage of the cry “free land” to start a new life, and some of the difficulties they faced and overcame.

Knowing there are no sweeping vistas for landscapes or towering mountains or ancient trees, I decided my story needed to be about something Homestead uniquely symbolizes. As part of the stewardship of the Monument the decision was made years ago to return the prairie to an original state, one similar to what Freeman saw as he explored the area looking for a new home. Now the second oldest restored prairie in the nation, the land became the subject of my story. The wide open prairie with its border of hedgerow trees and creek side forest became the vista I needed to show the scope of the park. The details of flora and fauna seen by looking closely in the park tells the story of how small elements work together to result in the larger environment. Against this, signs of man’s efforts to use the land, live on the land and finally respect the land through continued stewardship.

The staff at the Monument carries out activities supporting the mission of this place, both the natural and human aspects, and I was able to involve myself and my camera in several. Following the naturalist for the bird and deer count carried out by volunteers, photographing local students collecting water samples for quality testing, creating pictures of people in period costumes making candles, holding a spelling bee, and weaving cloth. Removing non-native species from the prairie and planting heirloom corn using true horsepower. There was even a ceremony re-opening a historic homestead cabin attended by the granddaughter of one of the settlers, connecting the reality portrayed in old black-and-white glass plate images with the modern world of National Parks.

For my first presentation I told the stories of three western photographers of the period – William Jackson, Arundel Hull and Solomon Butcher – who hauled their large-format cameras and glass plates across the Plains and western mountains to record what they saw, leaving us iconic images that resonate in our minds when we think of homesteading or western exploration. My second presentation showed images I’d made of the Monument along with pictures of other results from the Homestead Act – land-grant universities, agricultural cooperatives, railroad lines and grain elevators. All aspects of how we adapted to what the land was teaching us while we were changing the very look of the land. My final piece will somehow incorporate this story into an image.

Experiencing this National Monument changed my perspective on the Homestead Act from a simple paragraph in a history book to a realization of how this action of giving away land changed the natural and social landscape of America. Seeing it through my viewfinder helped me learn to look beyond the landscape and see how story develops based on how I compose an image, watch for the best light, put the right subject in the frame or even arrange photographs in a certain order.

I encourage my fellow RMSP artists to research this opportunity at parks they are interested in or have a desire to learn about. With more time to invest in a park you will gain new insights about its character and features, insights that will urge you to better photography. Additionally, you will meet people who can give you story ideas based on their in-depth knowledge of the park, a knowledge usually based on a love of the area and what it represents for us all. More ideas and greater insight – a bountiful combination for any photographer!

Homestead's Artist in Residence: Mel Mann talks about the process (Part 1)

2011-01-28T09:00:00.001-06:00

Mel Mann talks about the application process for

Artist in Residence program at

Homestead National Monument of America (Part 1)

During my time at Rocky Mountain School of Photography (RMSP) I realized that simply seeing something different was only part of the artistic journey, that bringing meaning to the vision is an integral part of connecting the viewer to the story of the image. It was with that challenge in mind I decided to apply for one of the artist-in-residence (AIR) spots offered by the National Park Service.

I learned about the program from a 2009 RMSP classmate, did research on which parks were offering (around 29 in 2009), selected a few I wanted to learn more about through my camera and began the application process. The AIR programs offer an individual the opportunity to immerse in a park’s environment, history, community, etc. in ways that casual visits just can’t satisfy. Most programs provide accommodations in the park that run from one to three weeks during different parts of the year. Rarely is a stipend provided although some consideration may be made for materials required for the final work; the contribution of an original piece to the park on a non-exclusive, royalty-free basis is usually part of the program requirements. Other aspects usually include public presentations or involvement in park educational activities where the artist’s work enhances the public’s experience.

What did I need to apply? Most of the parks required submission of an artist statement outlining what the artist expected to gain from the residency and how the park would benefit from their work. All wanted to see samples of your work but rarely more than six images, usually printed or on CD. And of course they wanted an artist resume outlining experience, prior residencies, awards, shows, etc. The descriptions of the requirements made the whole process feel daunting – who was I to want to be considered among all the other wonderful artists from all media who would certainly apply?

Remember the first time you prepared for a portfolio review or decided to show some images to an audience or simply put together an album for friends? If you’re like me your feelings run through a cycle that starts with “I’ve got so many images to choose from,” moves quickly to “Wow, most of my stuff is just crap,” transitions to “Is this all I’ve got to show for all these days/months/years of making pictures?!” followed by “Why did I get into photography in the first place?” and lands on a very few pictures you hesitantly decide might be good enough to share. It was with these feelings I finally picked images for my AIR applications, put together a very brief resume, wrote up an artist statement and bundled them all into envelopes destined for the various parks I’d selected.

Most parks have enlisted local artists to judge the applications along with staff members of the park, balancing the interests of portraying the park’s features with a sense of the type of artists who will benefit the most from the experience. It’s easy to think of such a panel of steely-eyed critics as a formidable barrier but in reality they are looking to help artists as well as the park. Many of the artists on the panels were in the AIR program at one or more National Parks. The judging and announcement times are all outlined in the application process and I found their responses to be right on schedule.

Several rejections later (all by gracious letter encouraging me to apply again later) I got a call from Allison La Duke, the AIR coordinator at Homestead National Monument in Beatrice, NE informing me I’d been selected for one of their 2009 artists, and wanting to know when I wanted to schedule my time there. Outstanding! Not only did I get selected but by one of the parks at the top of my list (I’m still learning about the Great Plains) and one near home as well. I selected two weeks in the spring and a week in the fall so I could get different perspectives on the park and started planning my summer.

[Photos by Mel Mann; taken during his residency.]

Homestead Animals Adapt for Winter

2011-01-21T09:00:00.002-06:00

Homesteaders were a hardy bunch of people. They endured snowstorms, drought, locust swarms, tornadoes, loneliness, failed crops and illness. If they weren’t survivors, then they probably were not successful in staying on their 160 acres for 5 years. They had to adapt to the conditions around them in order to get through many types of weather conditions and tough circumstances.

Not unlike the homesteaders, the animals that inhabit the tallgrass prairie have to find ways to survive, especially in winter. Prairie animals have a couple of options. They can stay and tough it out, leave, or miss the whole thing by sleeping it away. What would you do if you were an animal on the prairie? Who would you prefer to be: the woodchuck, who hibernates, the white-tailed deer, who remains active, or a migrating bird?

If you are an animal who hibernates, you have the ability to slow down your breathing and heart rates and your body temperature can significantly drop. In the late summer and fall, you prepare by building up fat reserves by feeding heavily. Hibernators typically spend their winter underground, by making or finding underground burrows to reside in through the winter months. Some hibernate alone, while others do so in groups.

Dickcissel at Homestead Monument. Photo by Mel Mann

If you are an animal who migrates, depending on how far you must fly, you have to store enough energy or have places along the way to stop and refuel. Prairie birds like the dickcissel winter in Venezuela and other South American countries, but western meadowlarks only go as far south as they must to find the weather and food to survive. They go where they find the food and weather conditions that are right for them.

If you are an animal that remains awake and alert all winter, you have to be resourceful to find enough food. Your diet changes fairly significantly because the ground can be covered by snow and frozen. Birds and mammals that eat insects in the summer switch to eating seeds in the winter. Squirrels and other small mammals collect food during the fall and live off that through the winter. Cottontails and deer, who eat green leaves and stems in the summer months, eat any tender twigs and buds they can find. Mammals will grow a thicker coat, but much of their survival is dependent upon the environmental conditions and the food that they find. It’s a bit tougher for them, don’t you think?

Who would you rather be on the prairie in winter? Much like the homesteaders, the prairie animals today have strategies and adapt to the winter conditions each year to survive.

How to Legally Acquire 480 Acres from the U. S. Government

2011-01-14T09:00:00.001-06:00

Claimants utilizing the Homestead Act of 1862 usually proved up on their basic 160 acres [quarter section] of land. This was the intent of the United States government land policies. But was it possible for one man to claim three separate quarter sections? The answer is “Yes.” Some men managed to legally acquire ownership of 480 acres.

There were three major acts passed by Congress to provide free or cheap land to settlers. The acts were designed to encourage development of newly acquired public lands:

• The Pre-Emption Act of 1841 permitted a settler to file for 160 acres [a quarter section] for a $2.00 filing fee. This privilege was open to citizens and those who had filed for citizenship. After the claimant resided on the land for six months and had cultivated and improved the land enough to show he intended to live there and farm the land, he could “prove up” by paying $1.25 per acre [$87.50].

In practice the terms were not quite so restrictive. The claimant was required to build a claim shack at least 8 feet by 10 feet, dig a well, plow five acres, and live their at least one night each month during the six months. This lenient residency requirement enabled a man to live and work somewhere else while fulfilling the legal stipulations of the pre-emption claim that he visited only periodically. After he had “proved up” and paid the fee, the land became his and he could sell it. The Pre-Emption Act remained in effect until 1891.

• The Homestead Act of 1862 was designed to encourage immigrants to become permanent settlers. Any person who was a head of a family or 21 years old and a citizen of the United States or had filed a declaration of intent to become a citizen could claim a quarter section. He or she was required to live on and cultivate the land for five years. At that time or within the next two years the claimant filed proof that they had fulfilled the legal requirements and received title to the land. If the claimant died during that time, his widow or children could continue the claim.

The settler was required to dig a well, build a house of prescribed size with a door and glass windows, put in fences, and cultivate twenty acres. This regulation also permitted a delay of six months after the initial filing before the residency requirement had to begin. During the residency, there could be no absences of more than six months per year. This type of homestead could be purchased or “commuted” after six months by paying $1.25 per acre.

Later the residence requirement before commutation was lengthened to fourteen months. Double Minimum Lands were public lands within the alternate sections granted to railways and therefore considered more valuable. The minimum price on Double Minimum Lands was $2.50 per acre.

• The Timber Culture Acts of 1873, 1874, and 1875 encouraged the planting and growing of trees on the prairie. After filing a claim on 160 acres, the claimant was required to plant forty acres of trees and then tend them for eight years, achieving this goal within thirteen years of filing. No residency on these acres was necessary. The 1878 Act reduced number of acres of trees from forty to ten.

Thus we can see how a man could legally gain three homesteads by first filing for 160 acres under the Pre-Emption Act, proving up in six months, and paying $87.50. Then he could file on a second quarter section, prove up by living on and cultivating this claim for five years. Thirdly, he could file a timber claim, plant and cultivate the required acres of trees for eight years, thus gaining an additional 160 acres. A surprising number of enterprising men accomplished this and became owners of 480 acres.

Although a man was supposed to file for only one claim at a time, the laws were loosely administered; and in some cases a man filed on all three acreages at once, moved onto the homestead claim, and then planted trees to hold the third 160 acres.

Adapted from the article Was It Possible for a Man to Legally Acquire 480 Acres from the U. S. Government? by Pamela Schwannecke Olson

Bibliography

Fanebust, Wayne. Where the Sioux River Bends Freeman, S. D. 1984 Pages 97-99
Potter, James E. “U. S Land Laws in Nebraska 1854-1904.” Heritage Quest July/August 1986 Pages 27-46
Schell, Herbert S. The History of South Dakota Lincoln, Nebraska. 1975 Page 174

William Holmes McGuffey and His Readers

2011-01-07T09:00:00.001-06:00

Two of the best-known school books in the history of American education were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers. Of the two, McGuffey’s was the most popular and widely used. It is estimated that at least 120 million copies of McGuffey’s Readers were sold between 1836 and 1960, placing its sales in a category with the Bible and Webster’s Dictionary. Since 1961 they have continued to sell at a rate of some 30,000 copies a year. No other textbook bearing a single person’s name has come close to that mark.

By Nancy Marie Hoppe

The author of the Readers, William Holmes McGuffey, was born September 23, 1800, near Claysville, Pennsylvania, and moved to Youngstown, Ohio with his parents in 1802. McGuffey’s family had immigrated to America from Scotland in 1774, and brought with them strong opinions on religion and a belief in education. Educating the young mind and preaching the gospel were McGuffey’s passions. He had a remarkable ability to memorize, and could commit to mind entire books of the Bible.

McGuffey became a “roving” teacher at the age of 14, beginning with 48 students in a one-room school in Calcutta, Ohio. Between teaching jobs, William McGuffey received an excellent classical education at the Old Stone Academy in Darlington, Pennsylvania, and graduated from Washington College in 1826. That same year he was appointed to a position as Professor of Languages at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. In 1827, McGuffey married Harriet Spinning, and the couple eventually had five children. Very little is known about the early lives of these children, although one daughter’s diary reveals that perfect obedience and submission were expected. William McGuffey spent his life striving to instill his strong convictions in the next generation. He believed religion and education to be interrelated and essential to a healthy society.

While McGuffey was teaching at Oxford, he established a reputation as a lecturer on moral and biblical subjects. In 1835, the small Cincinnati publishing firm of Truman and Smith asked McGuffey to create a series of four graded Readers for primary level students. McGuffey was recommended for the job by Harriet Beecher Stowe, a longtime friend. He completed the first two Readers within a year of signing his contract, receiving a fee of $1,000. While McGuffey compiled the first four Readers (1836-1837 edition), the fifth and sixth were created by his brother Alexander during the 1840s. The series consisted of stories, poems, essays and speeches. The advanced Readers contained excerpts from the works of great writers such as John Milton, Daniel Webster and Lord Byron.

The McGuffey Readers reflect their author’s personal philosophies, as well as his rough and tumble early years as a frontier schoolteacher. The finished works represented far more than a group of textbooks; they helped frame the country’s morals and tastes, and shaped the American character. The lessons in the Readers encouraged standards of morality and society throughout the United States for more than a century. They dealt with the natural curiosity of children; emphasized work and an independent spirit; encouraged an allegiance to country, and an understanding of the importance of religious values. The Readers were filled with stories of strength, character, goodness and truth. The books presented a variety of contrasting viewpoints on many issues and topics, and drew moral conclusions about lying, stealing, cheating, poverty, teasing, alcohol, overeating, skipping school and foul language. The books taught children to seek an education and continue to learn throughout their lives.

Even though there were originally four Readers, most schools of the 19th century used only the first two. The first Reader taught reading by using the phonics method, the identification of letters and their arrangement into words, and aided with slate work. The second Reader came into play once the student could read, and helped them to understand the meaning of sentences while providing vivid stories which children could remember. The third Reader taught the definitions of words, and was written at a level equivalent to the modern 5th or 6th grade. The fourth Reader was written for the highest levels of ability on the grammar school level, which students completed with this book.

McGuffey’s Readers were among the first textbooks in America that were designed to become progressively more challenging with each volume. They used word repetition in the text as a learning tool, which built strong reading skills through challenging reading. Sounding-out, enunciation and accents were emphasized. Colonial-era texts had offered dull lists of 20 to 100 new words per page for memorization. In contrast, McGuffey used new vocabulary words in the context of real literature, gradually introducing new words and carefully repeating the old.

McGuffey believed that teachers should study the lessons as well as their students, and suggested they read aloud to their classes. He also listed questions after each story, for he believed in order for a teacher to give instruction they must ask questions. McGuffey desired to improve students’ spelling, sharpen their vocabulary and redevelop the lost art of public speaking. In the 19th century, elocution was a part of every public occasion, and McGuffey was responsible for creating a generation of gifted orators and readers.

Although famous as the author of the Readers, McGuffey wrote very few other works. He was athletic, loved children, had a sparkling sense of humor, and enjoyed a good joke. McGuffey left Miami University for positions of successively greater responsibility at Cincinnati College, Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, and Woodward College in Cincinnati (where he served as president). He ended his career as a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Virginia. Through the hard times of the Civil War and following, McGuffey was known for his philanthropy and generosity among the poor and African-Americans. William McGuffey died in 1873, a success as an educator, lecturer and author.

McGuffey was remembered as a theological and conservative teacher. He understood the goals of public schooling in terms of moral and spiritual education, and attempted to give schools a curriculum that would instill Presbyterian Calvinist beliefs and manners in their students. These goals were suitable for early 19th century America, but not for the nations’ later need for unified pluralism. The content of the readers changed drastically between McGuffey’s 1836-1837 editions and the 1879 edition. The revised Readers were compiled to meet the needs of national unity and the dream of an American “melting pot” for the world's oppressed masses. The Calvinist values of salvation, righteousness and piety, so prominent in the early Readers, were entirely missing in the later versions. The content of the books was secularized and replaced by middle-class civil religion, morality and values. McGuffey’s name was continued on these revised editions, yet he neither contributed to them nor approved their content.

Other types of schoolbooks eventually replaced McGuffey’s. The desire for distinct grade levels, a changing society which sought less moral and spiritual content in their schoolbooks, and publishers who realized that there was greater profit in consumable workbooks, helped to bring about their decline. McGuffey’s lively texts never entirely disappeared, however, and are once again enticing children to learn and become avid readers. Schools use them frequently today to strengthen reading skills and cultivate a sense of history in young students.

McGuffey Readers played an important role in American history. Most prominent post-Civil War and turn-of-the-Century American figures credited their initial success in learning to the Readers, which provided a guide to what was occurring in the public school movement and in American culture during the 19th century. The mind and spirit of William Holmes McGuffey were most fully expressed through his readers and the moral and cultural influence they exerted upon children. The success of McGuffey’s vision is evidenced by the fact that the reprinted versions of his Readers are still in print, and may be purchased in bookstores across the country, including at Homestead National Monument of America.

U. S. Land Laws

2010-12-31T09:00:00.002-06:00

The Homestead Act of 1862 was just one of many laws passed by the United States to transfer land from the public domain into private ownership. Below are just a few of those other laws:

SALE LAWS – The sale of public lands at auction was the first general means of disposing of the public lands. The Congress under the Articles of Confederation first provided for sale in the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Land Ordinance of 1787 [Northwest Ordinance]. Under the Constitution the first sales act came in 1796, with changes enacted in 1800, 1803, and 1804. The Act of April 24, 1820, became the major sales act until repeal in 1891. Lands were offered at public sale to the highest bidder under the 1820 law at a minimum price of $1.25 an acre. There was no limitation on the acreage that could be purchased by an individual. None of the laws had residence or cultivation requirements.

MILITARY BOUNTY LAND LAWS – To reward those who had served in the nation’s armed forces; it was the practice of the federal government before the Civil War to give veterans public lands in reward for their service. The amount of land provided and how it could be taken differed under the numerous military land bounty acts. The practice was discontinued with the Civil War; however, veterans were given concessions under the homestead laws.

PREEMPTION LAW – Preemption allowed for settlers who built a residence and improved public lands to purchase claims at minimal price for public lands prior to the lands being offered at public sale. The first preemption law was enacted in 1799, after which, Congress continued to enact preemption laws of temporary nature from time to time. A permanent preemption law came with the passage of the Act of September 4, 1841. This legislation permitted an individual to settle and cultivate up to 160 acres of land and to then purchase that land within a specified time after either survey or settlement at $1.25 per acre. It was repealed in 1891.

SCRIP – By definition, scrip is a certificate which allowed the recipient to select a specified number of acres from the public domain. There were numerous types of script, among them being Agricultural College Scrip, Supreme Court Scrip, and Sioux Half-Breed Scrip. Conditions as the use of each type of scrip varied, as did the acreage given

DESERT LAND LAW – The Act of March 3, 1877 provided for the entry of 640 acres of irrigable public land. Claimant had to construct an irrigation system but no residence required. At the end of three years, land could be patented after payment of $1.25 per acre. In 1890 acreage for entries was reduced to 320 acres. Provisions of the act were at first extended to only the states of California, Nevada, and Oregon, as well as the territories of Arizona, Dakota, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. The law was extended to Colorado in 1891. This settlement law is still “on the books.”

DONATION LAWS – In an effort to encourage Anglo-American settlement of certain territorial acquisitions, Congress offered grants of lands to individuals who were already in possession of lands or were willing to immigrate to the areas of concern. Donation acts were passed for Florida in 1842 and 1844, Oregon and Washington in 1850 and 1853, and New Mexico in 1854. Most of the laws required residence and cultivation.

ENLARGED HOMESTEAD LAW – This legislation provided for 320 acre homesteads on semi-arid public lands designated as not susceptible to irrigation. Residence and cultivation were required. Enacted on February 19, 1909, the law was an act first extended to Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. In 1910 the law was amended to include Idaho and in 1915 South Dakota was brought under its provisions. It was repealed 1976.

GENERAL SEVERALTY LAW – The primary purpose of the act of February 8, 1887, also known as the Dawes Act and the General Allotment Act, was to provide Indians living on reservations with individual freeholds, or allotments. A little-known provision of the law, Section 4, however, provides allotments to Indians who occupied public lands. These public domain allotments were administered in a manner similar to the other public land settlement laws.

FOREST HOMESTEAD LAW – The Act of June 11, 1906 opened entry lands chiefly valuable for agricultural purposes within national forests to entry under the Homestead Law. Entries limited to 160 acres. It was repealed 1962.

RECLAMATION ACT LAW – The Newland Act of June 17, 1902 provided for federally funded irrigation projects. Lands within the projects were subject to the basic provisions of the Homestead Law. Individuals limited to overall ownership of 160 acres. In effect, the homestead provisions of this act were repealed with the Homestead Act in 1976.

STOCK-RAISING HOMESTEAD LAW – The last major settlement law, enacted December 29, 1916, this act provided for 640 acre entries on public domain classified as chiefly valuable for grazing and forage crops. Residence and certain improvements required. Passage of the Taylor Grazing Act in 1934 made this ineffectual. It was repealed in 1976.

TIMBER CULTURE LAW – This 1873 legislation offered 160 acres of public land to an individual willing to plant 40 acres of trees for ten years. Later amendments changed planting and time requirements. Residence on the claim was not a requirement. The act was of little success. It was repealed in 1891.

[This information came from a document published by the Bureau of land Management in March, 1992: “A Few of the Major Public Land and Mineral Laws” by James Muhn, Denver, Colorado.]

The Western Railroads

2010-12-24T09:00:00.001-06:00

A study of railroads in America can be said to be a study of the 19th century itself. The railroads carried heavy loads faster, and over longer distances, than any previous means of transportation. As railroads were built across the United States, they opened up wide farming and ranching areas. Cross-country migrations which took 4-6 months by wagon were reduced to trips lasting just four days. Railroads tapped rich forest and mineral resources, and brought better health to people by hauling a greater variety of perishable food than had ever before been available. Railroads connected the West to the East; towns sprang up along the tracks, and cities grew where rail lines met. Cattle were driven to the railheads of Missouri and later Kansas, creating towns in the process. Towns the tracks missed withered and sometimes died. Railroads promoted tourism, and enabled early legislators to justify the creation of the first National Parks. Railroads also had an enormous impact on the arts, in folk songs, storytelling, paintings, and popular culture during the 19th century.

Adapted from an article by Mike Corns

The epic story of the construction of the first railroad to run from coast to coast began in the 1840s, with the acquisition by the United States of vast new western lands as a result of the war with Mexico. But the individual states and regions argued among themselves about which route was the most desirable, causing a deadlock in Congress which lasted throughout the 1850s.

By June 1861, a railroad was a necessity for the over 300,000 inhabitants of California. The moneyed interests of the state decided to act on their own, and formed the Central Pacific Railroad Company in San Francisco. These same interests were able to push through the transcontinental railroad bill in Congress on June 20, 1862. With the Southern states out of the Union, a route along the 42nd parallel was chosen for the railroad, running from Omaha, Nebraska along the Platte River and through Wyoming, Colorado, Utah and Nevada to San Francisco. The Central Pacific Railroad was chosen as the company to build over the Sierras. Congress gave them 10 to 20 square miles of public land plus up to $48,000 in loans for every mile they completed. Congress incorporated the Union Pacific Railroad Company to build west from Omaha, and gave them a right-of-way of 400 ft. and 20 sections of land (12,800 acres) for each mile of road in existing states, and 40 sections (25,600 acres) for each mile of road in U.S. Territories.

Ground was broken for the Union Pacific at Omaha on December 2, 1863 and the Central Pacific broke ground on January 8, 1863 at Sacramento, California and many long years of work commenced. Finally on May 10, 1869 with the telegrapher's message, "1, 2, 3, Done!" the golden spike had been driven home at Promontory, Utah, completing Americas' first transcontinental railroad, the Union Pacific/Central Pacific.

The first transcontinental railroad was only the beginning, however. Within thirty years the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Great Northern, and finally the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railroads had been completed. In addition to the six transcontinentals, scores of regional feeder lines also came into being. Roads such as the Texas Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Denver and Rio Grande Western, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific became equally important in opening the American West. A person wishing to relocate to the West need not resign him or herself to leaving family, friends and civilization behind, for the railroads were civilization. It is no wonder that within just a few years the railroads carried as many people to new lives in the west as had taken the Oregon Trail in thirty years. William Tecumseh Sherman said in 1883: "I regard the building of these railroads as the most important event of modern times, and believe that they account fully for the peace and good order which now prevail throughout the country, and for the extraordinary prosperity which now prevails in this land."

The railroads changed the whole complexion of the West. Where once between the Mississippi and the Pacific only a handful of trading posts, mining towns, and forts now existed cities and towns. "The Great American Desert," as the plains of Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas had once been described, now became dotted with farms and ranches. The railroads not only provided the means to get there, but also an easy and affordable way to ship the goods to the market places back east.

For many people the railroads themselves became important employers and economic factors. Many end-of-rail towns, such as Cheyenne, Wyoming, became important rail junctions where locomotives were serviced, cars could be maintained, freight classification yards operated, and crews were changed, and travelers rested and ate. Other places grew from small towns into great cities as a result of the railroads. Denver, for example, had been a mining town and probably would have become a ghost town after the ore had played out if not for the entry of the rails. Soon after the arrival of the railroad, warehouses, stores and factories were built, and Denver became the great city of the Rocky Mountains.

Of course there is another side of the story to the construction of the railroads. American Indians, who contrary to Hollywood's version had looked upon the early wagon trains with more curiosity than maliciousness, now found their entire lifestyle threatened by the "iron horse." Often passengers shot buffalo from moving trains just for sport. The rails scarred Indian hunting grounds. Within a little more than a decade, Indians were relocated on reservations, and their once vast hunting grounds became farms, towns, ranches and cities.

By 1890 the United States Census Bureau determined that there was no longer a western frontier, since all parts of the west had been explored and settled. By 1900 there were 260,000 miles of track in the U.S. Gauges and time zones had been standardized, air brakes and automatic couplers installed, locomotives improved, rails strengthened, and Pullman and dining cars added. Not only were there regular railroad lines, but also interurban transit between cities and trolley lines, elevated railroads and subways within cities. America was a nation on rails everywhere one looked by the end of the 19th century, a century of steam and rails which united West and East more quickly and efficiently than any other single factor.

The Canadian Homestead Act

2010-12-17T09:00:00.003-06:00

The Canadian Homestead Act is more commonly called the Dominion Lands Act which is short for it’s official name: An Act Respecting the Public Lands of the Dominion. It passed in1872 and was in use until 1918. It aimed to encourage the settlement of Canada's prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchwan, and Manitoba. It was modeled on the U. S. Homestead Act of 1862. The Act's purpose was to encourage settlement by European and American pioneers, as well as settlers from Eastern Canada.

by Gene Finke

The act also launched the Dominion Lands Survey, which laid the framework for layout of the prairie provinces that persists to this day. The Dominion Land Survey was the method used to divide most of Western Canada into one-square-mile sections for agricultural and other purposes. It was based on the layout of the Public Land Survey System used in the United States.

The Canadian Homestead Act gave 160 acres for free to any male farmer who agreed to cultivate at least 40 acres and to build a permanent dwelling within three years. The only cost to the farmer being a $10 administration fee. This condition of “proving up the homestead” was instituted to prevent speculators from gaining control of the land.

An important difference between the Canadian and U.S. systems was that the Canadian system allowed the farmers to buy a neighboring 160 acres for the same $10 registration fee. This allowed most farms to quickly double in size. This was especially important in the arid areas of the prairie provinces where a farm of 160 acres was not large enough to be successful.

Manitoba wheat field

The Canadian Homestead Act did not immediately cause a great migration into the prairie provinces. Large-scale immigration to the prairies did not begin until 1896. The first version of the act limited the free land to areas more than 20 miles from a railway. It was very difficult for farmers to show a profit if they had to transort their products by wagon for 20 miles or more and therefore settlement was slow in the beginning. In 1879 the exclusion zone was shrunk to only 10 miles from the tracks and in 1882 it was finally eliminated.

The act went through many changes and amendments and was finally done away with in 1918 when a new system was set up designed to help World War I veterans settle more easily. Then in 1930 Parliament passed the Natural Resources Transfer Acts, turning over the control of public lands and resources in the prairies provinces to the provincial governments and thus relinquishing its right to legislate in these fields. Overall about 480,000 square miles of land were given away by the government under the Canadian Homestead Act.

For more information:
"Homesteading"in The Canadianen Encyclopedia
"Canadian Homestead Act" at E-How
"Dominion Lands Act/Homestead Act" in The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan

Homestead Success Was the Exception… Not the Rule

2010-12-10T09:00:00.001-06:00

The Homestead Act of 1862 has had a dramatic impact on our past, present, and future lives. The history of homesteading extends into so many other aspects of history across both space and time. The magnitude of the impact homesteading had on the United States and the rest of the world makes it easy to look upon the history with reverence, often overlooking the hardships many claimants endured. Unfortunately, the majority of homesteaders were unsuccessful in their attempt to prove up their claim. The reasons for failure are numerous; cited most often was poor planning, uncooperative weather circumstances, and poor soil conditions. As a historian, I consistently read stories about failed claimants, and for the most part, they are similar to each other. However, on occasion I come across stories and letters that stand out from the others; stories that truly puts their difficulties in perspective, and I would like to share a couple I recently read.

The first one was written by a newspaper reporter, William Allen White, as he watched refugees coming back east from western Kansas. This article appeared in the Emporia Gazette, June 15, 1895.

There came through Emporia yesterday two old-fashioned “mover wagons” headed east. The stock in the caravan would invoice four horses, very poor and very tired; one mule, more disheartened than the horses; and one sad-eyed dog, that had probably been compelled to rustle his own precarious living for many a long and weary day.

A few farm implements of the simpler sort were in the wagon, but nothing that had wheels was moving except the two wagons. All the rest of the impedimenta had been left upon the battlefield, and these poor stragglers, defeated but not conquered, were fleeing to another field, to try the fight again.

These movers were from western Kansas--- from Gray County, a county which holds a charter from the state to officiate as the worst, most desolate, God-forsaken, man-deserted spot on the sad old earth. They had come from the wilderness only after a ten years hard, vicious fight, a fight which had left its scars on their faces, had beat their bodies, had taken the elasticity from their steps, and left them crippled to enter the battle anew.

For ten years they had been fighting the elements. They had seen it stop raining for months at a time. They had heard the fury of the winter wind as it came whining across the short burned grass, and their children huddling in the corner. They have strained their eyes watching through the long summer days for the rain that never came. They have seen that big cloud roll up from the southwest about one o’clock in the afternoon, hover over the land, and stumble away with a few thumps of thunder as the sun went down. They have tossed through hot night’s wild with worry, and have arisen only to find their worst nightmares grazing in reality on the brown stubble in front of their sun-warped doors.

They had such high hopes when they went out there; they are so desolate now--- no not now, for now they are in the land of corn and honey. They have come out of the wilderness, back to the land of promise. They are now in God’s own country down on the Neosho, with their wife’s folks, and the taste of apple butter and good cornbread and fresh meat and pie—rhubarb pie like mother used to make--- gladdened their shrunken palates last night. And real cream, curdling on their coffee saucers last night for supper, was a sight so rich and strange that it lingered in their dreams, wherein they walked beside the still water, and lay down in green pastures.

These next two entries are letters that came from the wife of a homesteader writing back to her family. Her name is Mary Chaffee Abell and these two letters were written during the winter of 1874-75.

[Mary Abell to her father, Nov. 21, 1874]

We’ve been obliged to tell the children that Santa Claus will not come here this year, everybody is so poor, and need food and clothes so much it won’t pay him to bring any playthings. I shall try and sell butter to get them some candy. I have aches and pains somewhere all the time, and with all am cross and nervous. If I was only where I could run home once or twice a year and get a rest, but I am here and here I must stay, how long?

[Mary Abell to her mother, Feb. 16, 1875]

Your two kind welcome letters have been received. I am sorry you worry about me so, but can’t blame you. I am not as bad as I was in that coldest weather because I can sit up more, but I have no strength to do anything and the least little thing tires me all out. Baby has been quite sick for three days, and he is so heavy that the lifting and care of him has quite used me up. The weather here is colder than with you, for with the cold is a fierce north wind which will freeze man or beast that happen to be out. The children had to wear their hoods at night. My eyelids froze together so I picked off the ice, the tops of the sheets and quilts and all our beds were frozen stiff with the breath. The cold was so intense we could not breathe the air without pain.

The homesteading story is full of hardship, worry, and pain. The Act benefitted countless people when we look at the agricultural and industrial foundation laid by or because of homesteaders during this era, but it is important to remember that success was the exception… not the rule.

Homestead Simulates Nature’s Solution, Fire

2010-12-03T08:50:00.000-06:00

Homestead National Monument of America recently performed a prescribed burn on a portion of the restored tall grass prairie. I have been in and around areas that have conducted controlled burns, but I never took the time to learn about why this needed to be done. I began investigating the history of prescribed fire and its benefits to a tall grass prairie ecosystem and I would like to share that.

The tall grass prairie is one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world. We have lost over 99% of all tall grass prairies in North America due in large part to agriculture and the construction of our vast infrastructure. In less than 200 years Euro-American society nearly destroyed what had been maintained for millennia by nature and the Native American Indian. Nature provided grazers, like the bison, along with droughts and fire to preserve this fragile environment. American Indian’s would routinely set fire to the prairie in order to attract the bison because bison were attracted to fire; bison sought the remnants of a burned prairie because it provided a nutritious meal. All of these natural efforts created a thriving ecosystem that covered over 250 million acres in the United States.

Fire on the prairie, however, became a hazard in the 19th and 20th centuries. The United States had expanded throughout the prairie and the plains and farmers transformed the vast tall grass prairies into crop fields. Tall grass prairies had been absorbing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil for centuries, making it perfect for growing large quantities of crops. The combination of farmers clearing the land, towns and cities being built, along with railroads and highways spreading throughout the area, the once thriving tall grass prairie rapidly disappeared.

Today the existing tall grass prairie comes to us mostly through restoration efforts. State and National initiatives have brought back a small amount of this once flourishing ecosystem. Yet, restoration efforts are always fighting an uphill battle to control the delicate balance of these bio-systems. Natural resource specialists are constantly battling an onslaught of invasive species and noxious vegetation. Nature’s solution, fire, has become the tool of choice to limit and control harmful intrusions while stimulating the growth of native grasses. By simulating the natural conditions that had allowed the tall grass prairie to thrive, we can manage and maintain the little bit that we have left.

Homestead Assists with Oil Spill Cleanup to Conserve Resources

2010-11-26T08:41:00.001-06:00

The third week in September began like most other weeks at Homestead National Monument of America. Monday was spent cleaning the Palmer-Epard Cabin and the Freeman School and Tuesday I worked on various projects while providing visitor services at the front desk of the Heritage Center. Wednesday was different though. I received an email from the National Park Service Emergency Incident Coordination Center asking if I was available to go to Gulf Islands National Seashore the following Monday as a responder to the Deep Water Horizon oil spill. After speaking to the Chief Ranger and Superintendent it was agreed that I should definitely do what I could to help.

by Jason Jurgena
Museum Curator

Homestead National Monument of America

The Gulf Islands National Seashore, which is made up of twelve units, is partially located in both Mississippi and Florida. These units have a diversity of plants, animals, and marine life, as well as sites of historical and cultural value within their boundaries. The mission of the National Park Service (NPS) includes preserving these resources for future generations. During the three weeks that I worked on the project I was at the Perdito Key, Fort Pickens, and Santa Rosa units in Florida.

Tar balls from Bayside

When I arrived it had been exactly five months since the the drill rig Deepwater Horizon exploded and sank, killing 11 crewmembers and leaking oil into the Gulf of Mexico from an uncapped well. I wasn’t there during the early cleanup efforts and therefore can’t really say what conditions were like. When I arrived the beaches looked superficially clean, but upon closer inspection I could see many marble sized tar balls on the surface. I also saw, during my time there, that some larger tar balls were still just under the surface and some crews were working in waist deep water because they were finding them there as well. Fortunately, by the time I arrived, wildlife with oil on it was no longer being found but we continued to keep watch for oiled, distressed, or dead wildlife.

Before I arrived, more than 600 NPS employees from more than 135 different parks and units had participated in coordinating and assisting with the cleanup efforts. While I was there I worked closely with many U.S. Fish and Wildlife (FWS) employees also there in response to the spill. Many other agencies have staff involved in these efforts such as the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement but in my time at the incident I worked mainly with FWS and other NPS employees.

Sandshark cleaning the sand of tar balls at night.

My role in the project was that of Resource Advisor. What that meant was that it was my job to work with the cleaning crews while they were at the park to make them aware of what plant and animal life was in the area, how to recognize it, and how to best protect it. When I was working on the day shift my job would start before the sun would come up when I would speak to the work crews before they disembarked the busses and continued until all personnel and every last piece of equipment was off the beach at the end of the day. Due to the time of year, work could not begin in the morning until the beaches had been checked to be sure no sea turtle hatchlings were still making their way to the water. During the time I was on the night shift to monitor the mechanical cleaning of the beaches I would see both the sunset and sunrise. Other natural resources that need to be protected are the plant life that facilitates the formation of sand dunes, which in turn provide habitat for many of the animals living in this ecosystem. Also there are endangered shore birds such as the Piping Plover that nest on these beaches and in these dunes. Areas of sensitivity would be marked so special care could be taken while working in or near these areas.

Due to my background in archeology I was also there to protect archeological sites and areas of historical significance. I would generally work in areas where there were known archaeological sites so that these resources could also be protected for future generations. I was also there to monitor all work being done near these areas in the event that a new archeological discovery was made.

Turtle nest

So far I have made it sound like the Resource Advisors are there to protect the park’s natural and cultural resources from the workers who are there to clean it up and I want to make it clear that this is not the case. I found it to be a partnership and once the workers were aware of the park’s resources they did everything they could to help protect these resources. Most of the workers on these crews live in the area and consider these beaches to be their own. I witnessed many occasions where the foreman had to tell workers to take a break or to have lunch because the workers would have continued cleaning all day if they could. I haven’t heard how long the cleanup efforts will continue but if I am requested to go back again in the coming months I would be happy to do whatever I can to help.

Why the World Requires a Bread Basket

2010-11-19T08:25:00.006-06:00

Field where the Bread Basket of the World begins

The economics of homesteading is difficult to quantify in precise numbers, but late in the nineteenth and early twentieth century agriculture was a primary source of U.S. wealth. The United States is called the “Bread Basket of the World.” This simply means that the grain belt of the country provides grains and grain-based products to all corners of the globe. Previously, I had written about the increase in transportation and agricultural technologies that made physically moving the grains around the world possible, but what were some other forces at work that turned the Great Plains into an agricultural giant? The focus here is to begin thinking about what was happening in the United States and the world, and why did the world require a bread basket?

The United States, torn by the Civil War, was busy piecing the country back together during the 1860’s. During this time the government was trying to populate the western portion of the country by removing the American Indian and offering this land to individuals willing to live on and work the land. While agricultural production increased in the first decades following the Civil War, it took some time for the technology and population on the Great Plains to begin producing a surplus. During the 1860’s agricultural exports averaged a modest $182 million a year. The grain belt was just being born.

Grain belt of the Great Plains

By the 1870’s the grain belt was being settled rapidly, railroads were connecting cities to the farthest reaches of the Great Plains, and agricultural colleges were being built to supply the increased demand for applied technologies. Between the decades of 1870 to 1890 nearly 2 million new farms, double the total number that had existed in 1860, spread throughout the middle of the United States. One million new farms were being created every decade until the 1920’s when expansion finally reached a plateau.

I can only speculate on what factors allowed for the United States to emerge in the 20th century as the world’s leading agricultural superpower. European agricultural production would have been crippled during World War I and World War II as crop fields were turned into battlefields. The explosion of the world’s population that began around the beginning of the 20th century increased demand for agricultural products.

The timing of the Homestead Act is important because by the time these other key events began the agricultural infrastructure of the United States had been established and American farmers were in a position to contribute a large supply to the increasing demand. This is a complex issue that will require more extensive research, but there are some interesting questions to be asked about this history that have relevance to our present society.

The addition of the new farms directly led to an increase in production, but the population was growing as well, so surpluses were being consumed and profits grew proportionally to the number of farms. In order to become the “Bread Basket of the World”, a world market is required. So where did this market come from? Here, I do not pretend to know the answers. The U.S. was seeing the number of farms increase, and the production of those farms was increasing, in the decade of 1910-20 agricultural exports skyrocketed to an average of 1.9 billion annually.

Homesteaders Used Indian's Natural Medicines

2010-11-12T09:00:00.027-06:00

Long before our time, American Indian healers, or also known as medicine men, were planting and harvesting plants and herbs on the prairies for medicinal (medical) purposes. Many of us have been prescribed medications for various disorders or illnesses throughout our lives, or have decided to take some natural remedies or dietary supplements for various different reasons.

by SuAnn Saathoff

Southeast Community College

I have taken herbal supplements, without much thought, I will admit, as to the how or why we’ve come to use them, or how we know they work. But, plants and herbs have been used for centuries for their healing properties and continue to be used today. I’m going to tell you a little about the history of the use of medicinal plants and herbs by the American Indians, as well as some of the different plants that are native to Nebraska and the different ways they have been or are being used in medicine.

American Indians used their knowledge of plants and herbs to make not only food or clothing, but medicine to cure people of a lot of the same illnesses we have today. Ginseng, aloe, echinacea, ginkgo, these are products you will find on the shelves of your local supermarket or drug store, but they are medicinal products that have been used to treat a variety of illness for centuries. Kinscher in his 1992 book entitled, Medicinal Wild Plants of the Prairie, stated his study “documents the use of 203 native prairie plant species, used as medicine by Indians, settlers, and doctors.” The Indians of the region made the greatest use of these plants, by using 172 of these species (Kindscher, 1992).

Kindscher (1992) goes on to say, “Many of these plants were also used by doctors from the time of first settlement (the 1830s in the earliest areas) until the 1930s, Medicinal plants have played a major role in the health and healing system of the Indians” and continue to play a role in medicine today. “Although no exact figures are available, it is estimated that 40 percent of the prescription drugs now sold in the United States contain at least one ingredient derived from nature.”

Above is a little bit of background into how important the prairie resources of plants and herbs were to the Indians, settlers, and to us today. Now let’s examine the different ways the plants and herbs were used to deliver medicine.

According to Keoke and Porterfield in their 2005 book, American Indian Contributions to the World, “In order to develop plant-based drugs that worked, they (Indians) needed to understand the different effects that plants had on humans.” Giving a patient too little medicine would not cure the illness, and too much might result in death (Keoke & Porterfield, 2005).

Have you ever stopped to think how many different medicines they’ve [Indians] used in trial and error situations, to cure a certain ailment or illness you might have, before they came to the prescription your doctor has just prescribed for you?

There were many different ways in which plants and herbs were used in order to deliver the medicine. Medicine men or women would dry, grind, or crush roots, leaves, or barks, into oils or powder and would make them into salves/creams, suppositories, pills or medicine they could inject under the skin. They would also boil certain plant leaves, or roots and make tonics or teas to drink (Keoke, Porterfield, 2005).

According to Gilmore in his publication, Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region, some plants were broken into short pieces, and attached to the skin by moistening one end, and then lit on fire and allowed to burn down to the skin. Smoke treatments were also performed by lighting certain plants or herbs on fire and using the aroma or smoke to heal certain injuries or illnesses.

Now that we have looked at some of the different ways plants and herbs were used to make medicines let’s learn about some of the plants native to Nebraska and their medicinal uses.

The plant, purple coneflower, or better known today as, Echinacea, “was universally used as an antidote for snake bite and other venomous bites, stings and poisonous conditions” (Gilmore, 1918). When you have a cold, you might use a vapor rub that contains mint to clear your nose. But you could also take Echinacea, as it helps with infections caused by viruses like the common cold or flu, and is said to also help boast your immune system. This plant, native only to North America, was also the medicinal plant most widely used by the Indians of the prairie. (Kindscher, 1992)

Purple coneflower was also used to treat intestinal worms, by being brewed into a tea. Or the roots were rubbed downward on swollen arms or legs to reduce the swelling (Kindscher, 1992). Another popular medicine comes from tree bark. The bark from an American black willow was used as a pain reliever, because of the salicin (Keoke & Porterfield, 2005). Salicin is the main ingredient in aspirin, which is used for pain relief, as well as an anti-inflammatory.

These are just a few of the different uses types of plants or herbs and how they have been used, or continue to be used. These plants, and others not discussed, have been used for centuries for their healing properties and continue to be used today.

Today we have learned how American Indians used their knowledge of plants and herbs to make medicines to cure people of a lot of the same illnesses we have today. And I’ve also told you about some of the different ways in which plants and herbs were used to deliver medicine. Long before our time, American Indian healers, or also known as medicine men were planting and harvesting plants and herbs on the prairies for medicinal purposes. So, next time you are picking up a prescription or a dietary supplement, imagine that this medicine could have been used centuries ago for the same reason you are using it today.

References:

Cowen, R. (1990). Medicinal plants of the prairie. Science News, 137(14), 221. Retrieved from Health Source – Consumer Edition database.

Dandelion much more than a pest [Sunrise Edition]. (1995, June 18). Omaha World - Herald, p. 3F. Retrieved from Nebraska Newsstand.

Gilmore, M. (1919). Uses of plants by the Indians of the Missouri river region. Bureau of American Ethnology, Thirty-Third Annual Report 1911-1912, Washington Government Printing Office.

Kindscher, K. (1987, May). Edible wild plants of the prairie: An ethnobotanical guide. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.

Kindscher, K. (1992, October). Medicinal wild plants of the prairie: An ethnobotanical guide. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.

Keoke, E.D., & Porterfield K. (2005). American Indian contributions to the world. Medicine and health. NY: Facts On File, Inc. Retrieved from NetLibrary.

Homestead Native American Experience

2010-11-06T09:00:00.005-05:00

Kevin Locke, named Tokeya Inajin in Lakota, meaning “The First to Arise,” and renowned player of the Northern Plains flute, narrated the prayer in the video below. The poem was shared with attendees of the Native American Experience at Homestead National Monument on July 17, 2010. The event was both an acknowledgment of Indian participation in the homestead experience and a tribute to participants in the 2010 Special Olympics held in Lincoln, Nebraska.

Homestead's Artist-in-Residence: Homestead Prairie Gleanings

2010-10-29T09:00:00.013-05:00

By Judy Thompson

2010 Artist-in Residence

Homestead National Monument of America

Cottonwood Cows: While at the Homestead, I encountered triple digit temperatures. The hot, humid prairie offered little relief from these extreme conditions except for the few sparse cottonwoods scattered throughout the landscape. Many times on the prairie, trees became personalities which were known throughout the area for their distinct ability to give shade to both man and beast.

I am a visual artist who is fascinated with the beauty and history of the Great Plains. Through my watercolor landscapes, I attempt to capture not merely a likeness of my subject, but also a “sense of place.” The Artist-in-Residence Program provided me with the unique opportunity to explore the history of the homesteaders while being immersed in the native tallgrass prairie. My goal was to create a series of watercolor paintings depicting the prairies during the time of the first homesteaders. My time at the monument included researching existing photos and records, as well as taking my own photos, and creating onsite sketches of the park environment. These references were used to create compelling compositions of the homestead era.

Distant Harvest: In my research, I came across many accounts of how the homestead life affected children. For some children, moving to the prairie was an exciting adventure. However, many children soon realized that prairie life meant isolation. Future dreams of careers as teachers, doctors, etc., were kept in check by their ability to receive education, and by the expectation for them to stay and work the family farm. "Distant Harvest" speaks to the many sacrifices made by homesteader children.

Of the many interpretive themes of the Homestead National Monument, I am particularly interested in the change of ecosystem from the native tallgrass prairie to cultivated farmland. I am also inspired by the individuals and families who seized the opportunity to settle the West through the Homestead Act. My hope is to put these themes together into a series of watercolor paintings which will tell a visual story of this revolutionary event in our nation’s history.

Prairie Impressions: Speaks to the colors and mystique of the prairie landscape. Subtle colors and textures give a peaceful mood to the flowering, flowing grasses.

In October of 2010, I am scheduled to give a solo exhibition in Brookings, South Dakota. I want to entitle my show “Prairie Gleanings” and will include pieces of work from my time on the prairie at the Homestead National Monument.

Trail's End: The perils of homesteading were great. Many who tried were stopped by disease, lack of food, natural disaster and poor planning. Hopes, dreams and lives were often shattered. The prairie landscape was inviting yet hostile to those who tried to tame it. However, through time, it is the natural prairie which survives.

Uninterrupted time to observe, draw, and paint a subject is an artist’s dream. The Artist-in-Residence Program provided me with the exciting opportunity to experience the prairie in a very personal way and challenged me to capture the beauty of the prairie through watercolor. During my time in residency, I created an art journal (sketch book) of plants, animals, landscapes, and skyscapes discovered at the park. I included in this journal my impressions, ideas, and notes. This journal will provide me with artistic inspiration for years to come.

Editor’s note: Judy was in residence August 1 through 15, 2010.

Artist website: http://judythompson.mosaicglobe.com/

The Importance of Water in the Homestead Experience

2010-10-22T09:00:00.004-05:00

I read a quote by Bernard Frank, deceased journalist and writer, in which he claimed, “You could write the story of man’s growth in terms of his epic concerns with water”. Initially, I passed this off as an oversimplification of human history; however, I began to contemplate man’s “epic concerns” with water, and consider the implications this had on past events. The ability to obtain and control fresh water sources has been one of the key features of civilization from antiquity through the present. This was especially true to homesteaders who decided to stake their claim in the semi-arid regions of the Great Plains.

Humans have a few basic needs in order to survive; food, air, shelter, and water. Histories of homesteading often focus on food production and the primitive shelters that settlers were living in; while water, and its acquisition, often remains a tertiary focal point unless it was lacking as it was in the 1930’s. I can only assume the former are more appealing because sod houses and tar-paper shacks are more visually engaging or crops are the measurable products of a farmer’s painstaking efforts.

The link between crops and rain is so intertwined that the two seemed to have reached a causal relationship, thus we overlook the importance of water for human and animal consumption.

Homesteaders ideally sought land that was situated near a water source. Quarter sections that had a stream or pond on them were ideal because the worry for water was immediately nullified. As lands began to be distributed and homesteaders moved farther west, water sources became less abundant.

This caused two problems. One, the homesteader had to expend a great amount of time and energy traveling to and from a water source. Once they arrived they were limited only to amounts they could efficiently carry back with them. Secondly, they were limited to only a certain number of animals they could supply adequate amounts of water for. Combining wasted energy and limited animal stock; homesteaders could be crippled by efforts to maintain fresh water supplies.

This problem was alleviated for many homesteaders when they discovered the abundant ground water that existed under the majority of the Great Plains. The aquifer, named the Ogallala Aquifer, provided the much needed fresh water homesteaders were seeking. Initially the aquifer served two purposes.

First, and most importantly, homesteaders now had access to fresh water without having to waste the time and energy seeking out fresh water supplies. This provided for more time that could be spent trying to improve their claims. Increased time in the fields allowed for expanding farms; expanding farms provided for larger production; more production increased the chances of a homesteader being successful.

Secondly, homesteaders were able to provide fresh water to livestock. Increased amounts of livestock provided an abundant, renewable food supply. Byproducts from livestock were important to the success of homesteaders as well. Hides provided for clothing and blankets and waste made excellent fertilizer.

It would be difficult to overstate the important role water played in the success, or failure, of homesteaders. A homesteader’s ability to prove up their claim, and really, life and death, hinged on their ability to maintain a fresh water supply. I do not know if Bernard Frank’s quote is applicable to all of human history, but there certainly appears to be a bit of truth with respect to the history of homesteading in the United States.

Homestead's Artist-in-Residence: This land, not some other

2010-10-15T09:00:00.024-05:00

Mel Mann pictures shows how Cub Creek is a high bank creek, approximately 35 miles long, traversing Gage and Jefferson counties, NE, and meandering through the original Freeman land patent, now Homestead National Monument. In keeping with the mission to educate the public, Beatrice Middle School students assist the park rangers with monitoring water quality.

Mel Mann captured the harmony of the whispering water and over-head blind of burr oaks in this photo while shooting at the park as an artist-in-resident. While not the same scene the Freeman's witnessed over a hundred and forty years ago the scene does offer the same moment of dappled quietness.

Mel Mann's next photo is of the south boundary of the park, Freeman's Osage-orange hedgerow. The tree native to Texas was used to contain live stock. Vigorous pruning was needed to shape the trees into a living fence. Both an exotic plant and an important cultural artifact, the Osage-orange covers about five acres of the park.

White-tailed deer can be found year around on the prairie. The park conducts an montly deer count with 12 being counted in September. Last February there were over 100 counted.

Read more about Mel Mann's artist-in-residence experience by opening the link.

Celebrating President Woodrow Wilson

2010-10-08T09:00:00.040-05:00

Since 1951, the arrowhead has been the official logo of the National Park Service. The Sequoia tree and bison represent natural resources, the mountains and water are emblematic of scenic and recreational values, and the arrowhead shape represents historical and archeological resources.

Woodrow Wilson knew the answers to very important questions. What does a world at war need? To where does a nation turn in times of war?

by Luke Phillips
Southeast Community College

Today we live in a connected world and a country at war and can enjoy the benefits of Wilson’s remarkable insight. As I researched Scotts Bluff National Monument I noted Woodrow Wilson’s involvement in the process of preserving the area. I found this to be a curious sidetrack for a man attempting to bring peace to a world at war, so I continued my research to find out why he did so. Having learnt of the praiseworthy achievements of President Wilson, today I show you that he is worthy of ongoing esteem.

He can be admired for many things which he did, but today we will focus on his role in creating world peace in the aftermath of WWI and the creation of the National Park Service which has ensured a lasting comfort for all Americans who have lived in war-ravaged times.

Wilson is most often remembered because of his involvement in creating peace after WWI. It was a defining moment in the history of our world that has had continuing impact. He was a pacifist and thus reluctant to involve the U. S. in WWI (McNeese, 2000).

The war began in 1914 and quickly escalated to include many European countries (McNeese, 2000). The US remained neutral but was compelled to join the war in 1917 as Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant ships (Wilkinson, 2010). Wilson asked the House of Representatives to declare war April 2, 1917, but only in hope of peace. He delivered his Fourteen Points speech January 1918. By the time a ceasefire was declared on November 11, 1918, Wilson’s Fourteen Points were well known by international leaders (McNeese, 2000).

The Fourteen Points threshed out the details of peace and established a “general association of nations… under specific covenants.” Many were compromised in writing the Versailles Treaty (Fourteen Points, 2009). In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed by both sides which officially ended the war and established the League of Nations. The resulting peace was much fairer than the allies wanted because of Wilson’s leadership (McNeese, 2000).

His fourteen points created the League of Nations (McNeese, 2000). The League of Nations was Wilson’s lofty effort at sustaining world peace. World peace is something that we desire but have not yet achieved. Wilson accurately envisioned peace as an ongoing effort. Jackson David quotes Wilson’s attitude towards peace in his 2009 USA Today article Both President and Nobel Laureate: “Mankind has not yet been rid of the unspeakable horror of war… But it is the better part of wisdom to consider our work as one begun. It will be a continuing labor.”

He envisioned the League providing a means to work at peace diplomatically. The League was an abandonment of the traditional balance of power model. Traditionally, war was avoided by maintaining fairly equal alliances. The failure of this system brought about WWI and ensured that many countries would be involved for many years. The League of Nations was modified after WWII and became the United Nations (McNeese, 2000). For his admirable efforts in closing WWI and establishing the League of Nations, Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace prize in 1919 (David, 2009).

Wilson should also be admired for recognizing that Americans at home during wartime need National Parks. He founded the National Park Service which had maintained national treasures for our enjoyment ever since. Throughout recent history we can observe increased focus on NP during wartime (Jarvis, 2001).

T. Jarvis, in his 2001 article Stress Value points out that “we have seen again and again… at times of great stress and universal crisis, Americans flock to their public parks in huge numbers.” The parks provide “active recreation” and “passive contemplation of nature, scenery, or other aspects of our cultural heritage.”

Wilson ratified the Organic Act August 25, 1916 which created the NPS (Winks, 1997). President Lincoln protected the Yosemite Valley in 1864 during the Civil War, and from 1872 on many areas were named NP’s (Jarvis, 2001; Winks, 1997). The act provided funding and the organization’s mandate which has remained unchanged to this day. It provides for the conservation of areas of national worth - while funding access for the public to enjoy them (Winks, 1997). Many Presidents have followed suit. Lyndon Johnson added 64 sites to the NPS during the Vietnam War (Jarvis, 2001).

Wilson was wise to learn from the example of Lincoln, and time has proven his actions to be of incredible worth to Americans in time of war and uncertainty. It is amazing that Wilson was able to achieve this while also working for world peace.

Today I have recognized the achievements of President Wilson and shown you that he is worthy of ongoing esteem. He should be commended for his role in creating a fair peace through the Versailles Treaty and the establishment of the much needed League of Nations, and also for the creation of the NPS in such a critical time in US history. Pay tribute to President Wilson, for he knew what the world and his country needed in a time of war.

References:
David, J. (2009, December, 9). Both president and Nobel laureate. USA Today.
Fourteen points. (2009). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, (1).
Jarvis, T. (2001). Stress value. Parks & Recreation, 36(12), 2.
McNeese, T. (2000). The age of progress. St Louis, MO.: Milliken.
Wilkinson, S. (2010). Killer U-boats. Military History, 27(3), 26-34.
Winks, R. (1997). The National Park Service Act of 1916: ‘A contradictory mandate?’. G. Wright, (Ed.). Retrieved from http://www.georgewright.org/243winks.pdf